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This file contains ambiguous Unicode characters that may be confused with others in your current locale. If your use case is intentional and legitimate, you can safely ignore this warning. Use the Escape button to highlight these characters.

<!doctype html>
<html
class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available"
lang="en"
dir="ltr"
>
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8" />
<title>Machine - Wikipedia</title>
<script>
(function () {
var className =
"client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";
var cookie = document.cookie.match(
/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/,
);
if (cookie) {
cookie[1].split("%2C").forEach(function (pref) {
className = className.replace(
new RegExp(
"(^| )" +
pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g, "") +
"-clientpref-\\w+( |$)",
),
"$1" + pref + "$2",
);
});
}
document.documentElement.className = className;
})();
RLCONF = {
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wgSeparatorTransformTable: ["", ""],
wgDigitTransformTable: ["", ""],
wgDefaultDateFormat: "dmy",
wgMonthNames: [
"",
"January",
"February",
"March",
"April",
"May",
"June",
"July",
"August",
"September",
"October",
"November",
"December",
],
wgRequestId: "bf98692c-762a-4250-a53c-20207746a62c",
wgCanonicalNamespace: "",
wgCanonicalSpecialPageName: false,
wgNamespaceNumber: 0,
wgPageName: "Machine",
wgTitle: "Machine",
wgCurRevisionId: 1330085613,
wgRevisionId: 1330085613,
wgArticleId: 51462,
wgIsArticle: true,
wgIsRedirect: false,
wgAction: "view",
wgUserName: null,
wgUserGroups: ["*"],
wgCategories: [
"Webarchive template wayback links",
"Articles with short description",
"Short description is different from Wikidata",
"Wikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalism",
"Articles containing Latin-language text",
"Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text",
"All articles with unsourced statements",
"Articles with unsourced statements from May 2022",
"Articles needing additional references from November 2021",
"All articles needing additional references",
"Articles with unsourced statements from November 2021",
"Articles with unsourced statements from December 2018",
"Commons category link is on Wikidata",
"Machines",
],
wgPageViewLanguage: "en",
wgPageContentLanguage: "en",
wgPageContentModel: "wikitext",
wgRelevantPageName: "Machine",
wgRelevantArticleId: 51462,
wgTempUserName: null,
wgIsProbablyEditable: false,
wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable: false,
wgRestrictionEdit: ["autoconfirmed"],
wgRestrictionMove: [],
wgNoticeProject: "wikipedia",
wgFlaggedRevsParams: { tags: { status: { levels: 1 } } },
wgConfirmEditCaptchaNeededForGenericEdit: "hcaptcha",
wgConfirmEditHCaptchaVisualEditorOnLoadIntegrationEnabled: false,
wgConfirmEditHCaptchaSiteKey: "5d0c670e-a5f4-4258-ad16-1f42792c9c62",
wgMediaViewerOnClick: true,
wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault: true,
wgPopupsFlags: 0,
wgVisualEditor: {
pageLanguageCode: "en",
pageLanguageDir: "ltr",
pageVariantFallbacks: "en",
},
wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions: {
search: true,
watchlist: true,
tagline: false,
nearby: true,
},
wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample: false,
wgWMEPageLength: 60000,
wgWMEPageLengthBucket: 3,
wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish: true,
wgVisualEditorPageIsDisambiguation: false,
wgULSPosition: "interlanguage",
wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled: false,
wgVector2022LanguageInHeader: true,
wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty: false,
wgWikibaseItemId: "Q11019",
wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi: [
"brands",
"architecture",
"bitness",
"fullVersionList",
"mobile",
"model",
"platform",
"platformVersion",
],
GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics: true,
wgGESuggestedEditsTaskTypes: {
taskTypes: ["copyedit", "link-recommendation"],
unavailableTaskTypes: [],
},
wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled: false,
wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser: false,
wgGEUseMetricsPlatformExtension: true,
wgMetricsPlatformUserExperiments: {
active_experiments: [],
overrides: [],
enrolled: [],
assigned: [],
subject_ids: [],
sampling_units: [],
coordinator: [],
},
wgTestKitchenUserExperiments: {
active_experiments: [],
overrides: [],
enrolled: [],
assigned: [],
subject_ids: [],
sampling_units: [],
coordinator: [],
},
};
RLSTATE = {
"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles": "ready",
"site.styles": "ready",
"user.styles": "ready",
"ext.globalCssJs.user": "ready",
user: "ready",
"user.options": "loading",
"ext.wikimediamessages.styles": "ready",
"ext.cite.styles": "ready",
"skins.vector.search.codex.styles": "ready",
"skins.vector.styles": "ready",
"skins.vector.icons": "ready",
"jquery.makeCollapsible.styles": "ready",
"ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript": "ready",
"ext.uls.interlanguage": "ready",
"wikibase.client.init": "ready",
};
RLPAGEMODULES = [
"ext.cite.ux-enhancements",
"mediawiki.page.media",
"site",
"mediawiki.page.ready",
"jquery.makeCollapsible",
"mediawiki.toc",
"skins.vector.js",
"ext.centralNotice.geoIP",
"ext.centralNotice.startUp",
"ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips",
"ext.gadget.switcher",
"ext.urlShortener.toolbar",
"ext.centralauth.centralautologin",
"mmv.bootstrap",
"ext.popups",
"ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init",
"ext.echo.centralauth",
"ext.eventLogging",
"ext.wikimediaEvents",
"ext.navigationTiming",
"ext.uls.interface",
"ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns",
"ext.cx.uls.quick.actions",
"wikibase.client.vector-2022",
"wikibase.databox.fromWikidata",
"ext.checkUser.clientHints",
"ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession",
"ext.xLab",
"ext.testKitchen",
];
</script>
<script>
(RLQ = window.RLQ || []).push(function () {
mw.loader.impl(function () {
return [
"user.options@12s5i",
function ($, jQuery, require, module) {
mw.user.tokens.set({
patrolToken: "+\\",
watchToken: "+\\",
csrfToken: "+\\",
});
},
];
});
});
</script>
<link
rel="stylesheet"
href="/w/load.php?lang=en&amp;modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&amp;only=styles&amp;skin=vector-2022"
/>
<script
async=""
src="/w/load.php?lang=en&amp;modules=startup&amp;only=scripts&amp;raw=1&amp;skin=vector-2022"
></script>
<meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content="" />
<link
rel="stylesheet"
href="/w/load.php?lang=en&amp;modules=site.styles&amp;only=styles&amp;skin=vector-2022"
/>
<meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.46.0-wmf.11" />
<meta name="referrer" content="origin" />
<meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin" />
<meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard" />
<meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no" />
<meta
property="og:image"
content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Woman_operator_operating_milling_machine_-_DPLA_-_34dc4b36bfa1d73f44c4d6983b12f77c_%28cropped%29.jpg"
/>
<meta property="og:image:width" content="1200" />
<meta property="og:image:height" content="1100" />
<meta name="viewport" content="width=1120" />
<meta property="og:title" content="Machine - Wikipedia" />
<meta property="og:type" content="website" />
<link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org" />
<link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png" />
<link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico" />
<link
rel="search"
type="application/opensearchdescription+xml"
href="/w/rest.php/v1/search"
title="Wikipedia (en)"
/>
<link
rel="EditURI"
type="application/rsd+xml"
href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"
/>
<link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine" />
<link
rel="license"
href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"
/>
<link
rel="alternate"
type="application/atom+xml"
title="Wikipedia Atom feed"
href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;feed=atom"
/>
<link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" />
<link rel="dns-prefetch" href="auth.wikimedia.org" />
</head>
<body
class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Machine rootpage-Machine skin-vector-2022 action-view"
>
<div
id="mw-aria-live-region"
class="mw-aria-live-region"
aria-live="polite"
></div>
<a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a>
<div class="vector-header-container">
<header class="vector-header mw-header no-font-mode-scale">
<div class="vector-header-start">
<nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site">
<div
id="vector-main-menu-dropdown"
class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right"
title="Main menu"
>
<input
type="checkbox"
id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox"
role="button"
aria-haspopup="true"
data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown"
class="vector-dropdown-checkbox"
aria-label="Main menu"
/>
<label
id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label"
for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox"
class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only"
aria-hidden="true"
><span
class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"
></span>
<span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span>
</label>
<div class="vector-dropdown-content">
<div
id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container"
class="vector-unpinned-container"
>
<div
id="vector-main-menu"
class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"
>
<div
class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned"
data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned"
data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu"
data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container"
data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container"
>
<div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div>
<button
class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button"
data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin"
>
move to sidebar
</button>
<button
class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button"
data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin"
>
hide
</button>
</div>
<div
id="p-navigation"
class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation"
>
<div class="vector-menu-heading">Navigation</div>
<div class="vector-menu-content">
<ul class="vector-menu-content-list">
<li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item">
<a
href="/wiki/Main_Page"
title="Visit the main page [z]"
accesskey="z"
><span>Main page</span></a
>
</li>
<li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item">
<a
href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents"
title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"
><span>Contents</span></a
>
</li>
<li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item">
<a
href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events"
title="Articles related to current events"
><span>Current events</span></a
>
</li>
<li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item">
<a
href="/wiki/Special:Random"
title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]"
accesskey="x"
><span>Random article</span></a
>
</li>
<li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item">
<a
href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About"
title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"
><span>About Wikipedia</span></a
>
</li>
<li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item">
<a
href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us"
title="How to contact Wikipedia"
><span>Contact us</span></a
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<div
id="p-interaction"
class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction"
>
<div class="vector-menu-heading">Contribute</div>
<div class="vector-menu-content">
<ul class="vector-menu-content-list">
<li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item">
<a
href="/wiki/Help:Contents"
title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"
><span>Help</span></a
>
</li>
<li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item">
<a
href="/wiki/Help:Introduction"
title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"
><span>Learn to edit</span></a
>
</li>
<li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item">
<a
href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal"
title="The hub for editors"
><span>Community portal</span></a
>
</li>
<li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item">
<a
href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges"
title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]"
accesskey="r"
><span>Recent changes</span></a
>
</li>
<li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item">
<a
href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard"
title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"
><span>Upload file</span></a
>
</li>
<li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item">
<a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages"
><span>Special pages</span></a
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</nav>
<a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo">
<img
class="mw-logo-icon"
src="/static/images/icons/enwiki-25.svg"
alt=""
aria-hidden="true"
height="50"
width="50"
/>
<span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert">
<img
class="mw-logo-wordmark"
alt="Wikipedia"
src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en-25.svg"
style="width: 8.75em; height: 1.375em"
/>
<img
class="mw-logo-tagline"
alt="The Free Encyclopedia"
src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en-25.svg"
width="140"
height="11"
style="width: 8.75em; height: 0.6875em"
/>
</span>
</a>
</div>
<div class="vector-header-end">
<div
id="p-search"
role="search"
class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"
>
<a
href="/wiki/Special:Search"
class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle"
title="Search Wikipedia [f]"
accesskey="f"
><span
class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"
></span>
<span>Search</span>
</a>
<div class="vector-typeahead-search-container">
<div
class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"
>
<form
action="/w/index.php"
id="searchform"
class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"
>
<div
id="simpleSearch"
class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper"
data-search-loc="header-moved"
>
<div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon">
<input
class="cdx-text-input__input mw-searchInput"
autocomplete="off"
type="search"
name="search"
placeholder="Search Wikipedia"
aria-label="Search Wikipedia"
autocapitalize="sentences"
spellcheck="false"
title="Search Wikipedia [f]"
accesskey="f"
id="searchInput"
/>
<span
class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"
></span>
</div>
<input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search" />
</div>
<button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">
Search
</button>
</form>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<nav
class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide"
aria-label="Personal tools"
>
<div class="vector-user-links-main">
<div
id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences"
class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet"
>
<div class="vector-menu-content">
<ul class="vector-menu-content-list"></ul>
</div>
</div>
<div
id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage"
class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet"
>
<div class="vector-menu-content">
<ul class="vector-menu-content-list"></ul>
</div>
</div>
<nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance">
<div
id="vector-appearance-dropdown"
class="vector-dropdown"
title="Change the appearance of the page&#039;s font size, width, and color"
>
<input
type="checkbox"
id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox"
role="button"
aria-haspopup="true"
data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown"
class="vector-dropdown-checkbox"
aria-label="Appearance"
/>
<label
id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label"
for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox"
class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only"
aria-hidden="true"
><span
class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"
></span>
<span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span>
</label>
<div class="vector-dropdown-content">
<div
id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container"
class="vector-unpinned-container"
></div>
</div>
</div>
</nav>
<div
id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications"
class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet"
>
<div class="vector-menu-content">
<ul class="vector-menu-content-list"></ul>
</div>
</div>
<div
id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow"
class="vector-menu mw-portlet"
>
<div class="vector-menu-content">
<ul class="vector-menu-content-list">
<li
id="pt-sitesupport-2"
class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"
>
<a
data-mw-interface
href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&amp;wmf_medium=sidebar&amp;wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&amp;uselang=en"
class=""
><span>Donate</span></a
>
</li>
<li
id="pt-createaccount-2"
class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"
>
<a
data-mw-interface
href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&amp;returnto=Machine"
title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"
class=""
><span>Create account</span></a
>
</li>
<li
id="pt-login-2"
class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"
>
<a
data-mw-interface
href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&amp;returnto=Machine"
title="You&#039;re encouraged to log in; however, it&#039;s not mandatory. [o]"
accesskey="o"
class=""
><span>Log in</span></a
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div
id="vector-user-links-dropdown"
class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out user-links-collapsible-item"
title="Log in and more options"
>
<input
type="checkbox"
id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox"
role="button"
aria-haspopup="true"
data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown"
class="vector-dropdown-checkbox"
aria-label="Personal tools"
/>
<label
id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label"
for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox"
class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only"
aria-hidden="true"
><span
class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"
></span>
<span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span>
</label>
<div class="vector-dropdown-content">
<div
id="p-personal"
class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item"
title="User menu"
>
<div class="vector-menu-content">
<ul class="vector-menu-content-list">
<li
id="pt-sitesupport"
class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"
>
<a
href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&amp;wmf_medium=sidebar&amp;wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&amp;uselang=en"
><span>Donate</span></a
>
</li>
<li
id="pt-createaccount"
class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"
>
<a
href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&amp;returnto=Machine"
title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"
><span
class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"
></span>
<span>Create account</span></a
>
</li>
<li
id="pt-login"
class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"
>
<a
href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&amp;returnto=Machine"
title="You&#039;re encouraged to log in; however, it&#039;s not mandatory. [o]"
accesskey="o"
><span
class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"
></span>
<span>Log in</span></a
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</nav>
</div>
</header>
</div>
<div class="mw-page-container">
<div class="mw-page-container-inner">
<div class="vector-sitenotice-container">
<div id="siteNotice"><!-- CentralNotice --></div>
</div>
<div class="vector-column-start">
<div class="vector-main-menu-container">
<div id="mw-navigation">
<nav
id="mw-panel"
class="vector-main-menu-landmark"
aria-label="Site"
>
<div
id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container"
class="vector-pinned-container"
></div>
</nav>
</div>
</div>
<div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container">
<nav
id="mw-panel-toc"
aria-label="Contents"
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<h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2>
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<span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span>
<span>Etymology</span>
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<span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span>
<span>History</span>
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<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Simple_machines">
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<span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span>
<span>Simple machines</span>
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<span>Mechanical systems</span>
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<span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span>
<span>Power sources</span>
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<span>Mechanisms</span>
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<span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span>
<span>Gears and gear trains</span>
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<span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span>
<span>Cam and follower mechanisms</span>
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<span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span>
<span>Linkages</span>
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<span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span>
<span>Planar mechanism</span>
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<span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span>
<span>Spherical mechanism</span>
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<span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span>
<span>Spatial mechanism</span>
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<span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7</span>
<span>Flexure mechanisms</span>
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<span>Machine elements</span>
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<span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span>
<span>Structural components</span>
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<span>Controllers</span>
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<span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span>
<span>Computing machines</span>
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<span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span>
<span>Molecular machines</span>
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<span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span>
<span>Impact</span>
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<span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span>
<span>Mechanization and automation</span>
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<span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span>
<span>Automata</span>
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<span>Mechanics</span>
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<span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span>
<span>Dynamics of machines</span>
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<span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span>
<span>Kinematics of machines</span>
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<span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span>
<span>Machine design</span>
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<span>See also</span>
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<span>References</span>
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<span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span>
<span>Further reading</span>
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<span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span>
<span>External links</span>
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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">
<span class="mw-page-title-main">Machine</span>
</h1>
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<span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">146 languages</span>
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<div class="vector-menu-content">
<ul class="vector-menu-content-list">
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masjien"
title="Masjien – Afrikaans"
lang="af"
hreflang="af"
data-title="Masjien"
data-language-autonym="Afrikaans"
data-language-local-name="Afrikaans"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
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>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maschine"
title="Maschine – Alemannic"
lang="gsw"
hreflang="gsw"
data-title="Maschine"
data-language-autonym="Alemannisch"
data-language-local-name="Alemannic"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Alemannisch</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%9B%E1%88%BD%E1%8A%95"
title="ማሽን – Amharic"
lang="am"
hreflang="am"
data-title="ማሽን"
data-language-autonym="አማርኛ"
data-language-local-name="Amharic"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>አማርኛ</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%84%D8%A9"
title="آلة – Arabic"
lang="ar"
hreflang="ar"
data-title="آلة"
data-language-autonym="العربية"
data-language-local-name="Arabic"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>العربية</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maquina"
title="Maquina – Aragonese"
lang="an"
hreflang="an"
data-title="Maquina"
data-language-autonym="Aragonés"
data-language-local-name="Aragonese"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Aragonés</span></a
>
</li>
<li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"
>
<a
href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahin%C3%A2"
title="Mahinâ – Aromanian"
lang="rup"
hreflang="rup"
data-title="Mahinâ"
data-language-autonym="Armãneashti"
data-language-local-name="Aromanian"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Armãneashti</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0"
title="যন্ত্ৰ – Assamese"
lang="as"
hreflang="as"
data-title="যন্ত্ৰ"
data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া"
data-language-local-name="Assamese"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>অসমীয়া</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maquinaria"
title="Maquinaria – Asturian"
lang="ast"
hreflang="ast"
data-title="Maquinaria"
data-language-autonym="Asturianu"
data-language-local-name="Asturian"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Asturianu</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ku%27ekavo%C3%B1a"
title="Ku&#039;ekavoña – Guarani"
lang="gn"
hreflang="gn"
data-title="Ku&#039;ekavoña"
data-language-autonym="Avañe&#039;ẽ"
data-language-local-name="Guarani"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Avañe&#039;ẽ</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%C5%9F%C4%B1n"
title="Maşın – Azerbaijani"
lang="az"
hreflang="az"
data-title="Maşın"
data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca"
data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86"
title="ماشین – South Azerbaijani"
lang="azb"
hreflang="azb"
data-title="ماشین"
data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه"
data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>تۆرکجه</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0"
title="যন্ত্র – Bangla"
lang="bn"
hreflang="bn"
data-title="যন্ত্র"
data-language-autonym="বাংলা"
data-language-local-name="Bangla"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>বাংলা</span></a
>
</li>
<li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"
>
<a
href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ki-h%C3%A2i"
title="Ki-hâi – Minnan"
lang="nan"
hreflang="nan"
data-title="Ki-hâi"
data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí"
data-language-local-name="Minnan"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
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>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0"
title="Машина – Bashkir"
lang="ba"
hreflang="ba"
data-title="Машина"
data-language-autonym="Башҡортса"
data-language-local-name="Bashkir"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Башҡортса</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%88%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B0"
title="Машына – Belarusian"
lang="be"
hreflang="be"
data-title="Машына"
data-language-autonym="Беларуская"
data-language-local-name="Belarusian"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Беларуская</span></a
>
</li>
<li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"
>
<a
href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%88%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B0"
title="Машына – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)"
lang="be-tarask"
hreflang="be-tarask"
data-title="Машына"
data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)"
data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makina"
title="Makina – Central Bikol"
lang="bcl"
hreflang="bcl"
data-title="Makina"
data-language-autonym="Bikol Central"
data-language-local-name="Central Bikol"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Bikol Central</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0"
title="Машина – Bulgarian"
lang="bg"
hreflang="bg"
data-title="Машина"
data-language-autonym="Български"
data-language-local-name="Bulgarian"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Български</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maschiin"
title="Maschiin – Bavarian"
lang="bar"
hreflang="bar"
data-title="Maschiin"
data-language-autonym="Boarisch"
data-language-local-name="Bavarian"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Boarisch</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%95%E0%BE%B2%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%A3%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%81%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%A2%E0%BC%8D"
title="འཕྲུལ་འཁོར། – Tibetan"
lang="bo"
hreflang="bo"
data-title="འཕྲུལ་འཁོར།"
data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག"
data-language-local-name="Tibetan"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%C5%A1ina"
title="Mašina – Bosnian"
lang="bs"
hreflang="bs"
data-title="Mašina"
data-language-autonym="Bosanski"
data-language-local-name="Bosnian"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Bosanski</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mekanik"
title="Mekanik – Breton"
lang="br"
hreflang="br"
data-title="Mekanik"
data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg"
data-language-local-name="Breton"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Brezhoneg</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A0quina"
title="Màquina – Catalan"
lang="ca"
hreflang="ca"
data-title="Màquina"
data-language-autonym="Català"
data-language-local-name="Catalan"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Català</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9Ca%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0"
title="Мaшина – Chuvash"
lang="cv"
hreflang="cv"
data-title="Мaшина"
data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла"
data-language-local-name="Chuvash"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Чӑвашла</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makina"
title="Makina – Cebuano"
lang="ceb"
hreflang="ceb"
data-title="Makina"
data-language-autonym="Cebuano"
data-language-local-name="Cebuano"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Cebuano</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroj"
title="Stroj – Czech"
lang="cs"
hreflang="cs"
data-title="Stroj"
data-language-autonym="Čeština"
data-language-local-name="Czech"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Čeština</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muchina"
title="Muchina – Shona"
lang="sn"
hreflang="sn"
data-title="Muchina"
data-language-autonym="ChiShona"
data-language-local-name="Shona"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>ChiShona</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peiriant"
title="Peiriant – Welsh"
lang="cy"
hreflang="cy"
data-title="Peiriant"
data-language-autonym="Cymraeg"
data-language-local-name="Welsh"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Cymraeg</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maskine"
title="Maskine – Danish"
lang="da"
hreflang="da"
data-title="Maskine"
data-language-autonym="Dansk"
data-language-local-name="Danish"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Dansk</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maschine"
title="Maschine – German"
lang="de"
hreflang="de"
data-title="Maschine"
data-language-autonym="Deutsch"
data-language-local-name="German"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Deutsch</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masin"
title="Masin – Estonian"
lang="et"
hreflang="et"
data-title="Masin"
data-language-autonym="Eesti"
data-language-local-name="Estonian"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Eesti</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B7%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%AE"
title="Μηχανή – Greek"
lang="el"
hreflang="el"
data-title="Μηχανή"
data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά"
data-language-local-name="Greek"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Ελληνικά</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B0"
title="Теважа – Erzya"
lang="myv"
hreflang="myv"
data-title="Теважа"
data-language-autonym="Эрзянь"
data-language-local-name="Erzya"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Эрзянь</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1quina_(tecnolog%C3%ADa)"
title="Máquina (tecnología) – Spanish"
lang="es"
hreflang="es"
data-title="Máquina (tecnología)"
data-language-autonym="Español"
data-language-local-name="Spanish"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Español</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%C5%9Dino"
title="Maŝino – Esperanto"
lang="eo"
hreflang="eo"
data-title="Maŝino"
data-language-autonym="Esperanto"
data-language-local-name="Esperanto"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Esperanto</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1quina"
title="Máquina – Extremaduran"
lang="ext"
hreflang="ext"
data-title="Máquina"
data-language-autonym="Estremeñu"
data-language-local-name="Extremaduran"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Estremeñu</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makina"
title="Makina – Basque"
lang="eu"
hreflang="eu"
data-title="Makina"
data-language-autonym="Euskara"
data-language-local-name="Basque"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Euskara</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86"
title="ماشین – Persian"
lang="fa"
hreflang="fa"
data-title="ماشین"
data-language-autonym="فارسی"
data-language-local-name="Persian"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>فارسی</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine"
title="Machine – Fiji Hindi"
lang="hif"
hreflang="hif"
data-title="Machine"
data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi"
data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine"
title="Machine – French"
lang="fr"
hreflang="fr"
data-title="Machine"
data-language-autonym="Français"
data-language-local-name="French"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Français</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masine"
title="Masine – Western Frisian"
lang="fy"
hreflang="fy"
data-title="Masine"
data-language-autonym="Frysk"
data-language-local-name="Western Frisian"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Frysk</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meais%C3%ADn"
title="Meaisín – Irish"
lang="ga"
hreflang="ga"
data-title="Meaisín"
data-language-autonym="Gaeilge"
data-language-local-name="Irish"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Gaeilge</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeshaght"
title="Jeshaght – Manx"
lang="gv"
hreflang="gv"
data-title="Jeshaght"
data-language-autonym="Gaelg"
data-language-local-name="Manx"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Gaelg</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inneal"
title="Inneal – Scottish Gaelic"
lang="gd"
hreflang="gd"
data-title="Inneal"
data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig"
data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Gàidhlig</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1quina"
title="Máquina – Galician"
lang="gl"
hreflang="gl"
data-title="Máquina"
data-language-autonym="Galego"
data-language-local-name="Galician"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Galego</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macini"
title="Macini – Kikuyu"
lang="ki"
hreflang="ki"
data-title="Macini"
data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ"
data-language-local-name="Kikuyu"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Gĩkũyũ</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B8%B0%EA%B3%84"
title="기계 – Korean"
lang="ko"
hreflang="ko"
data-title="기계"
data-language-autonym="한국어"
data-language-local-name="Korean"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>한국어</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A5%D6%84%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%A1"
title="Մեքենա – Armenian"
lang="hy"
hreflang="hy"
data-title="Մեքենա"
data-language-autonym="Հայերեն"
data-language-local-name="Armenian"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Հայերեն</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0"
title="यंत्र – Hindi"
lang="hi"
hreflang="hi"
data-title="यंत्र"
data-language-autonym="हिन्दी"
data-language-local-name="Hindi"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>हिन्दी</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strojevi"
title="Strojevi – Croatian"
lang="hr"
hreflang="hr"
data-title="Strojevi"
data-language-autonym="Hrvatski"
data-language-local-name="Croatian"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Hrvatski</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mashino"
title="Mashino – Ido"
lang="io"
hreflang="io"
data-title="Mashino"
data-language-autonym="Ido"
data-language-local-name="Ido"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Ido</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makina"
title="Makina – Iloko"
lang="ilo"
hreflang="ilo"
data-title="Makina"
data-language-autonym="Ilokano"
data-language-local-name="Iloko"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Ilokano</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesin"
title="Mesin – Indonesian"
lang="id"
hreflang="id"
data-title="Mesin"
data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia"
data-language-local-name="Indonesian"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machina"
title="Machina – Interlingua"
lang="ia"
hreflang="ia"
data-title="Machina"
data-language-autonym="Interlingua"
data-language-local-name="Interlingua"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Interlingua</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/INguxa"
title="INguxa – Zulu"
lang="zu"
hreflang="zu"
data-title="INguxa"
data-language-autonym="IsiZulu"
data-language-local-name="Zulu"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>IsiZulu</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9l"
title="Vél – Icelandic"
lang="is"
hreflang="is"
data-title="Vél"
data-language-autonym="Íslenska"
data-language-local-name="Icelandic"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Íslenska</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macchina"
title="Macchina – Italian"
lang="it"
hreflang="it"
data-title="Macchina"
data-language-autonym="Italiano"
data-language-local-name="Italian"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Italiano</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%94"
title="מכונה – Hebrew"
lang="he"
hreflang="he"
data-title="מכונה"
data-language-autonym="עברית"
data-language-local-name="Hebrew"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>עברית</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesin"
title="Mesin – Javanese"
lang="jv"
hreflang="jv"
data-title="Mesin"
data-language-autonym="Jawa"
data-language-local-name="Javanese"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Jawa</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0"
title="ಯಂತ್ರ – Kannada"
lang="kn"
hreflang="kn"
data-title="ಯಂತ್ರ"
data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ"
data-language-local-name="Kannada"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90"
title="მანქანა – Georgian"
lang="ka"
hreflang="ka"
data-title="მანქანა"
data-language-autonym="ქართული"
data-language-local-name="Georgian"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>ქართული</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%90%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%96%D9%86"
title="مِشیٖن – Kashmiri"
lang="ks"
hreflang="ks"
data-title="مِشیٖن"
data-language-autonym="کٲشُر"
data-language-local-name="Kashmiri"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>کٲشُر</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0"
title="Машина – Kazakh"
lang="kk"
hreflang="kk"
data-title="Машина"
data-language-autonym="Қазақша"
data-language-local-name="Kazakh"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Қазақша</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jynn"
title="Jynn – Cornish"
lang="kw"
hreflang="kw"
data-title="Jynn"
data-language-autonym="Kernowek"
data-language-local-name="Cornish"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Kernowek</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mashine"
title="Mashine – Swahili"
lang="sw"
hreflang="sw"
data-title="Mashine"
data-language-autonym="Kiswahili"
data-language-local-name="Swahili"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Kiswahili</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machin"
title="Machin – Haitian Creole"
lang="ht"
hreflang="ht"
data-title="Machin"
data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen"
data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mak%C3%AEne"
title="Makîne – Kurdish"
lang="ku"
hreflang="ku"
data-title="Makîne"
data-language-autonym="Kurdî"
data-language-local-name="Kurdish"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Kurdî</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0"
title="Машина – Kyrgyz"
lang="ky"
hreflang="ky"
data-title="Машина"
data-language-autonym="Кыргызча"
data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Кыргызча</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%84%E0%BA%B7%E0%BB%88%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%87%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%BB%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%88%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%81"
title="ເຄື່ອງກົນຈັກ – Lao"
lang="lo"
hreflang="lo"
data-title="ເຄື່ອງກົນຈັກ"
data-language-autonym="ລາວ"
data-language-local-name="Lao"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>ລາວ</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machina"
title="Machina – Latin"
lang="la"
hreflang="la"
data-title="Machina"
data-language-autonym="Latina"
data-language-local-name="Latin"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Latina</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%C5%A1%C4%ABna"
title="Mašīna – Latvian"
lang="lv"
hreflang="lv"
data-title="Mašīna"
data-language-autonym="Latviešu"
data-language-local-name="Latvian"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Latviešu</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanin%C4%97_sistema"
title="Mechaninė sistema – Lithuanian"
lang="lt"
hreflang="lt"
data-title="Mechaninė sistema"
data-language-autonym="Lietuvių"
data-language-local-name="Lithuanian"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Lietuvių</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nia mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://nia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesin"
title="Mesin – Nias"
lang="nia"
hreflang="nia"
data-title="Mesin"
data-language-autonym="Li Niha"
data-language-local-name="Nias"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Li Niha</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mas%C3%ADni"
title="Masíni – Lingala"
lang="ln"
hreflang="ln"
data-title="Masíni"
data-language-autonym="Lingála"
data-language-local-name="Lingala"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Lingála</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maqina"
title="Maqina – Lombard"
lang="lmo"
hreflang="lmo"
data-title="Maqina"
data-language-autonym="Lombard"
data-language-local-name="Lombard"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Lombard</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9p"
title="Gép – Hungarian"
lang="hu"
hreflang="hu"
data-title="Gép"
data-language-autonym="Magyar"
data-language-local-name="Hungarian"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Magyar</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0"
title="Машина – Macedonian"
lang="mk"
hreflang="mk"
data-title="Машина"
data-language-autonym="Македонски"
data-language-local-name="Macedonian"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Македонски</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82"
title="യന്ത്രം – Malayalam"
lang="ml"
hreflang="ml"
data-title="യന്ത്രം"
data-language-autonym="മലയാളം"
data-language-local-name="Malayalam"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>മലയാളം</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0"
title="यंत्र – Marathi"
lang="mr"
hreflang="mr"
data-title="यंत्र"
data-language-autonym="मराठी"
data-language-local-name="Marathi"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>मराठी</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90"
title="მანქანა – Mingrelian"
lang="xmf"
hreflang="xmf"
data-title="მანქანა"
data-language-autonym="მარგალური"
data-language-local-name="Mingrelian"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>მარგალური</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B3%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%87"
title="دسگاه – Mazanderani"
lang="mzn"
hreflang="mzn"
data-title="دسگاه"
data-language-autonym="مازِرونی"
data-language-local-name="Mazanderani"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>مازِرونی</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesin"
title="Mesin – Malay"
lang="ms"
hreflang="ms"
data-title="Mesin"
data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu"
data-language-local-name="Malay"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masin"
title="Masin – Minangkabau"
lang="min"
hreflang="min"
data-title="Masin"
data-language-autonym="Minangkabau"
data-language-local-name="Minangkabau"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Minangkabau</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD"
title="Машин – Mongolian"
lang="mn"
hreflang="mn"
data-title="Машин"
data-language-autonym="Монгол"
data-language-local-name="Mongolian"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Монгол</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%85%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%80%E1%80%AD%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AD%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AC%E1%80%99%E1%80%BB%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8"
title="စက်ကိရိယာများ – Burmese"
lang="my"
hreflang="my"
data-title="စက်ကိရိယာများ"
data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ"
data-language-local-name="Burmese"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine"
title="Machine – Dutch"
lang="nl"
hreflang="nl"
data-title="Machine"
data-language-autonym="Nederlands"
data-language-local-name="Dutch"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Nederlands</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2"
title="कल – Nepali"
lang="ne"
hreflang="ne"
data-title="कल"
data-language-autonym="नेपाली"
data-language-local-name="Nepali"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>नेपाली</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE"
title="ज्यासा – Newari"
lang="new"
hreflang="new"
data-title="ज्यासा"
data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा"
data-language-local-name="Newari"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A9%9F%E6%A2%B0"
title="機械 – Japanese"
lang="ja"
hreflang="ja"
data-title="機械"
data-language-autonym="日本語"
data-language-local-name="Japanese"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>日本語</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0"
title="Машина – Chechen"
lang="ce"
hreflang="ce"
data-title="Машина"
data-language-autonym="Нохчийн"
data-language-local-name="Chechen"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Нохчийн</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maskiin"
title="Maskiin – Northern Frisian"
lang="frr"
hreflang="frr"
data-title="Maskiin"
data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk"
data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Nordfriisk</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maskin"
title="Maskin – Norwegian Bokmål"
lang="nb"
hreflang="nb"
data-title="Maskin"
data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål"
data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maskin"
title="Maskin – Norwegian Nynorsk"
lang="nn"
hreflang="nn"
data-title="Maskin"
data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk"
data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mach%C3%A8ne"
title="Machène – Norman"
lang="nrf"
hreflang="nrf"
data-title="Machène"
data-language-autonym="Nouormand"
data-language-local-name="Norman"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Nouormand</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maquina"
title="Maquina – Occitan"
lang="oc"
hreflang="oc"
data-title="Maquina"
data-language-autonym="Occitan"
data-language-local-name="Occitan"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Occitan</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AF%E0%AC%A8%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%A4%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B0"
title="ଯନ୍ତ୍ର – Odia"
lang="or"
hreflang="or"
data-title="ଯନ୍ତ୍ର"
data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ"
data-language-local-name="Odia"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maashinii"
title="Maashinii – Oromo"
lang="om"
hreflang="om"
data-title="Maashinii"
data-language-autonym="Oromoo"
data-language-local-name="Oromo"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Oromoo</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mashina"
title="Mashina – Uzbek"
lang="uz"
hreflang="uz"
data-title="Mashina"
data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча"
data-language-local-name="Uzbek"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A8"
title="ਮਸ਼ੀਨ – Punjabi"
lang="pa"
hreflang="pa"
data-title="ਮਸ਼ੀਨ"
data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ"
data-language-local-name="Punjabi"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86"
title="مشین – Western Punjabi"
lang="pnb"
hreflang="pnb"
data-title="مشین"
data-language-autonym="پنجابی"
data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>پنجابی</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86"
title="ماشین – Pashto"
lang="ps"
hreflang="ps"
data-title="ماشین"
data-language-autonym="پښتو"
data-language-local-name="Pashto"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>پښتو</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angign"
title="Angign – Piedmontese"
lang="pms"
hreflang="pms"
data-title="Angign"
data-language-autonym="Piemontèis"
data-language-local-name="Piedmontese"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Piemontèis</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maschien"
title="Maschien – Low German"
lang="nds"
hreflang="nds"
data-title="Maschien"
data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch"
data-language-local-name="Low German"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maszyna"
title="Maszyna – Polish"
lang="pl"
hreflang="pl"
data-title="Maszyna"
data-language-autonym="Polski"
data-language-local-name="Polish"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Polski</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1quina"
title="Máquina – Portuguese"
lang="pt"
hreflang="pt"
data-title="Máquina"
data-language-autonym="Português"
data-language-local-name="Portuguese"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Português</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mashina"
title="Mashina – Kara-Kalpak"
lang="kaa"
hreflang="kaa"
data-title="Mashina"
data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha"
data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%C8%99in%C4%83"
title="Mașină – Romanian"
lang="ro"
hreflang="ro"
data-title="Mașină"
data-language-autonym="Română"
data-language-local-name="Romanian"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Română</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qallwa"
title="Qallwa – Quechua"
lang="qu"
hreflang="qu"
data-title="Qallwa"
data-language-autonym="Runa Simi"
data-language-local-name="Quechua"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Runa Simi</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0"
title="Машина – Russian"
lang="ru"
hreflang="ru"
data-title="Машина"
data-language-autonym="Русский"
data-language-local-name="Russian"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Русский</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D1%8B%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B0_(%D1%82%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BB)"
title="Массыына (тэрил) – Yakut"
lang="sah"
hreflang="sah"
data-title="Массыына (тэрил)"
data-language-autonym="Саха тыла"
data-language-local-name="Yakut"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Саха тыла</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sg mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://sg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_m%C3%A9canique"
title="Machine mécanique – Sango"
lang="sg"
hreflang="sg"
data-title="Machine mécanique"
data-language-autonym="Sängö"
data-language-local-name="Sango"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Sängö</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A0china"
title="Màchina – Sardinian"
lang="sc"
hreflang="sc"
data-title="Màchina"
data-language-autonym="Sardu"
data-language-local-name="Sardinian"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Sardu</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makina"
title="Makina – Albanian"
lang="sq"
hreflang="sq"
data-title="Makina"
data-language-autonym="Shqip"
data-language-local-name="Albanian"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Shqip</span></a
>
</li>
<li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"
>
<a
href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine"
title="Machine – Simple English"
lang="en-simple"
hreflang="en-simple"
data-title="Machine"
data-language-autonym="Simple English"
data-language-local-name="Simple English"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Simple English</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroj"
title="Stroj – Slovak"
lang="sk"
hreflang="sk"
data-title="Stroj"
data-language-autonym="Slovenčina"
data-language-local-name="Slovak"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Slovenčina</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroj"
title="Stroj – Slovenian"
lang="sl"
hreflang="sl"
data-title="Stroj"
data-language-autonym="Slovenščina"
data-language-local-name="Slovenian"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Slovenščina</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makiinad"
title="Makiinad – Somali"
lang="so"
hreflang="so"
data-title="Makiinad"
data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga"
data-language-local-name="Somali"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Soomaaliga</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%95%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%95"
title="مەکینە – Central Kurdish"
lang="ckb"
hreflang="ckb"
data-title="مەکینە"
data-language-autonym="کوردی"
data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>کوردی</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0"
title="Машина – Serbian"
lang="sr"
hreflang="sr"
data-title="Машина"
data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski"
data-language-local-name="Serbian"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Српски / srpski</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%C5%A1ina"
title="Mašina – Serbo-Croatian"
lang="sh"
hreflang="sh"
data-title="Mašina"
data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски"
data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesin"
title="Mesin – Sundanese"
lang="su"
hreflang="su"
data-title="Mesin"
data-language-autonym="Sunda"
data-language-local-name="Sundanese"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Sunda</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kone"
title="Kone – Finnish"
lang="fi"
hreflang="fi"
data-title="Kone"
data-language-autonym="Suomi"
data-language-local-name="Finnish"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Suomi</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maskin"
title="Maskin – Swedish"
lang="sv"
hreflang="sv"
data-title="Maskin"
data-language-autonym="Svenska"
data-language-local-name="Swedish"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Svenska</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makina"
title="Makina – Tagalog"
lang="tl"
hreflang="tl"
data-title="Makina"
data-language-autonym="Tagalog"
data-language-local-name="Tagalog"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Tagalog</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D"
title="இயந்திரம் – Tamil"
lang="ta"
hreflang="ta"
data-title="இயந்திரம்"
data-language-autonym="தமிழ்"
data-language-local-name="Tamil"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>தமிழ்</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allal"
title="Allal – Tachelhit"
lang="shi"
hreflang="shi"
data-title="Allal"
data-language-autonym="Taclḥit"
data-language-local-name="Tachelhit"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Taclḥit</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shn mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://shn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%82%81%E1%81%A2%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%82%88%E1%81%B8%E1%81%A2%E1%81%B5%E1%80%BA%E1%82%88"
title="ႁၢင်ႈၸၢၵ်ႈ – Shan"
lang="shn"
hreflang="shn"
data-title="ႁၢင်ႈၸၢၵ်ႈ"
data-language-autonym="တႆး"
data-language-local-name="Shan"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>တႆး</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82"
title="యంత్రం – Telugu"
lang="te"
hreflang="te"
data-title="యంత్రం"
data-language-autonym="తెలుగు"
data-language-local-name="Telugu"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>తెలుగు</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B7%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3"
title="เครื่องจักร – Thai"
lang="th"
hreflang="th"
data-title="เครื่องจักร"
data-language-autonym="ไทย"
data-language-local-name="Thai"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>ไทย</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD"
title="Мошин – Tajik"
lang="tg"
hreflang="tg"
data-title="Мошин"
data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ"
data-language-local-name="Tajik"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makine"
title="Makine – Turkish"
lang="tr"
hreflang="tr"
data-title="Makine"
data-language-autonym="Türkçe"
data-language-local-name="Turkish"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Türkçe</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%C5%9Fyn"
title="Maşyn – Turkmen"
lang="tk"
hreflang="tk"
data-title="Maşyn"
data-language-autonym="Türkmençe"
data-language-local-name="Turkmen"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Türkmençe</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0"
title="Машина – Ukrainian"
lang="uk"
hreflang="uk"
data-title="Машина"
data-language-autonym="Українська"
data-language-local-name="Ukrainian"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Українська</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%84%DB%81"
title="آلہ – Urdu"
lang="ur"
hreflang="ur"
data-title="آلہ"
data-language-autonym="اردو"
data-language-local-name="Urdu"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>اردو</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rok"
title="Rok – Zhuang"
lang="za"
hreflang="za"
data-title="Rok"
data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh"
data-language-local-name="Zhuang"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Vahcuengh</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1y_m%C3%B3c"
title="Máy móc – Vietnamese"
lang="vi"
hreflang="vi"
data-title="Máy móc"
data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt"
data-language-local-name="Vietnamese"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machene"
title="Machene – Walloon"
lang="wa"
hreflang="wa"
data-title="Machene"
data-language-autonym="Walon"
data-language-local-name="Walloon"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Walon</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makin%C3%A1"
title="Makiná – Waray"
lang="war"
hreflang="war"
data-title="Makiná"
data-language-autonym="Winaray"
data-language-local-name="Waray"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Winaray</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuutuloxo"
title="Wuutuloxo – Wolof"
lang="wo"
hreflang="wo"
data-title="Wuutuloxo"
data-language-autonym="Wolof"
data-language-local-name="Wolof"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Wolof</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9C%BA%E5%99%A8"
title="机器 – Wu"
lang="wuu"
hreflang="wuu"
data-title="机器"
data-language-autonym="吴语"
data-language-local-name="Wu"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>吴语</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%9F"
title="מאשין – Yiddish"
lang="yi"
hreflang="yi"
data-title="מאשין"
data-language-autonym="ייִדיש"
data-language-local-name="Yiddish"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>ייִדיש</span></a
>
</li>
<li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"
>
<a
href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A9%9F%E6%A2%B0"
title="機械 – Cantonese"
lang="yue"
hreflang="yue"
data-title="機械"
data-language-autonym="粵語"
data-language-local-name="Cantonese"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>粵語</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9C%BA%E5%99%A8"
title="机器 – Chinese"
lang="zh"
hreflang="zh"
data-title="机器"
data-language-autonym="中文"
data-language-local-name="Chinese"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>中文</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ann mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://ann.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okwukwut_ikwaan%CC%84"
title="Okwukwut ikwaan̄ – Obolo"
lang="ann"
hreflang="ann"
data-title="Okwukwut ikwaan̄"
data-language-autonym="Obolo"
data-language-local-name="Obolo"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Obolo</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesin"
title="Mesin – Betawi"
lang="bew"
hreflang="bew"
data-title="Mesin"
data-language-autonym="Betawi"
data-language-local-name="Betawi"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Betawi</span></a
>
</li>
<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item">
<a
href="https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesin"
title="Mesin – Iban"
lang="iba"
hreflang="iba"
data-title="Mesin"
data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban"
data-language-local-name="Iban"
class="interlanguage-link-target"
><span>Jaku Iban</span></a
>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang">
<span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"
><a
href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q11019#sitelinks-wikipedia"
title="Edit interlanguage links"
class="wbc-editpage"
>Edit links</a
></span
>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</header>
<div
class="vector-page-toolbar vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref--excluded"
>
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id="p-associated-pages"
class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages"
>
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<ul class="vector-menu-content-list">
<li
id="ca-nstab-main"
class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"
>
<a
href="/wiki/Machine"
title="View the content page [c]"
accesskey="c"
><span>Article</span></a
>
</li>
<li
id="ca-talk"
class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"
>
<a
href="/wiki/Talk:Machine"
rel="discussion"
title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]"
accesskey="t"
><span>Talk</span></a
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
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id="vector-variants-dropdown"
class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet"
>
<input
type="checkbox"
id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox"
role="button"
aria-haspopup="true"
data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown"
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aria-label="Change language variant"
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</label>
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<nav aria-label="Views">
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id="p-views"
class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views"
>
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<ul class="vector-menu-content-list">
<li
id="ca-view"
class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"
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<a href="/wiki/Machine"><span>Read</span></a>
</li>
<li
id="ca-viewsource"
class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"
>
<a
href="/w/index.php?title=Machine&amp;action=edit"
title="This page is protected.&#10;You can view its source [e]"
accesskey="e"
><span>View source</span></a
>
</li>
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id="ca-history"
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accesskey="h"
><span>View history</span></a
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class="vector-page-tools-landmark"
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class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown"
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type="checkbox"
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role="button"
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data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown"
class="vector-dropdown-checkbox"
aria-label="Tools"
/>
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id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label"
for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox"
class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet"
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class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned"
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>
<div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">
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hide
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id="p-cactions"
class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items"
title="More options"
>
<div class="vector-menu-heading">Actions</div>
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<ul class="vector-menu-content-list">
<li
id="ca-more-view"
class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"
>
<a href="/wiki/Machine"
><span>Read</span></a
>
</li>
<li
id="ca-more-viewsource"
class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"
>
<a
href="/w/index.php?title=Machine&amp;action=edit"
><span>View source</span></a
>
</li>
<li
id="ca-more-history"
class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"
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href="/w/index.php?title=Machine&amp;action=history"
><span>View history</span></a
>
</li>
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id="p-tb"
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<div class="vector-menu-heading">General</div>
<div class="vector-menu-content">
<ul class="vector-menu-content-list">
<li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item">
<a
href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Machine"
title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]"
accesskey="j"
><span>What links here</span></a
>
</li>
<li
id="t-recentchangeslinked"
class="mw-list-item"
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href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Machine"
rel="nofollow"
title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]"
accesskey="k"
><span>Related changes</span></a
>
</li>
<li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item">
<a
href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard"
title="Upload files [u]"
accesskey="u"
><span>Upload file</span></a
>
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<li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item">
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href="/w/index.php?title=Machine&amp;oldid=1330085613"
title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"
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>
</li>
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<a
href="/w/index.php?title=Machine&amp;action=info"
title="More information about this page"
><span>Page information</span></a
>
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<li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item">
<a
href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&amp;page=Machine&amp;id=1330085613&amp;wpFormIdentifier=titleform"
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>
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<li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item">
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><span>Download QR code</span></a
>
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title="Printable version of this page [p]"
accesskey="p"
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</div>
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<li
class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"
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<a
href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Machines"
hreflang="en"
><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a
>
</li>
<li
class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"
>
<a
href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Machine"
hreflang="en"
><span>Wikiquote</span></a
>
</li>
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Powered mechanical device
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<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">
This article is about devices designed to perform tasks. For
other uses, see
<a
href="/wiki/Machine_(disambiguation)"
class="mw-disambig"
title="Machine (disambiguation)"
>Machine (disambiguation)</a
>.
</div>
<link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
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<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">
"Machinery" redirects here. For other uses, see
<a
href="/wiki/Machinery_(disambiguation)"
class="mw-disambig"
title="Machinery (disambiguation)"
>Machinery (disambiguation)</a
>.
</div>
<p class="mw-empty-elt"></p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb">
<a
href="/wiki/File:Woman_operator_operating_milling_machine_-_DPLA_-_34dc4b36bfa1d73f44c4d6983b12f77c_(cropped).jpg"
class="mw-file-description"
><img
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Woman_operator_operating_milling_machine_-_DPLA_-_34dc4b36bfa1d73f44c4d6983b12f77c_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Woman_operator_operating_milling_machine_-_DPLA_-_34dc4b36bfa1d73f44c4d6983b12f77c_%28cropped%29.jpg"
decoding="async"
width="300"
height="275"
class="mw-file-element"
srcset="
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Woman_operator_operating_milling_machine_-_DPLA_-_34dc4b36bfa1d73f44c4d6983b12f77c_%28cropped%29.jpg/500px-Woman_operator_operating_milling_machine_-_DPLA_-_34dc4b36bfa1d73f44c4d6983b12f77c_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Woman_operator_operating_milling_machine_-_DPLA_-_34dc4b36bfa1d73f44c4d6983b12f77c_%28cropped%29.jpg/699px-Woman_operator_operating_milling_machine_-_DPLA_-_34dc4b36bfa1d73f44c4d6983b12f77c_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x
"
data-file-width="699"
data-file-height="641"
/></a>
<figcaption>
A worker operating a
<a
href="/wiki/Milling_machine"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Milling machine"
>milling machine</a
>
in the early 20th century
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>
A <b>machine</b> is a
<a
href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_system"
title="Thermodynamic system"
>thermodynamic system</a
>
that uses
<a href="/wiki/Power_(physics)" title="Power (physics)"
>power</a
>
to apply <a href="/wiki/Force" title="Force">forces</a> and
control
<a href="/wiki/Motion" title="Motion">movement</a> to
perform an action. The term is commonly applied to
artificial devices, such as those employing
<a href="/wiki/Engine" title="Engine">engines</a> or motors,
but also to natural biological macromolecules, such as
<a href="/wiki/Molecular_machine" title="Molecular machine"
>molecular machines</a
>. Machines can be driven by
<a
href="/wiki/Animal_power"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Animal power"
>animals</a
>
and
<a href="/wiki/Human_power" title="Human power">people</a>,
by natural forces such as
<a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">wind</a> and
<a
href="/wiki/Water_power"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Water power"
>water</a
>, and by
<a href="/wiki/Chemical_energy" title="Chemical energy"
>chemical</a
>,
<a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy" title="Thermal energy"
>thermal</a
>, or
<a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity"
>electrical</a
>
power, and include a system of
<a
href="/wiki/Mechanism_(engineering)"
title="Mechanism (engineering)"
>mechanisms</a
>
that shape the
<a href="/wiki/Actuator" title="Actuator">actuator</a> input
to achieve a specific application of output forces and
movement. They can also include
<a
href="/wiki/Computers"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Computers"
>computers</a
>
and sensors that monitor performance and plan movement,
often called mechanical systems.
</p>
<p>
Renaissance natural philosophers identified six
<a href="/wiki/Simple_machine" title="Simple machine"
>simple machines</a
>
which were the elementary devices that put a load into
motion, and calculated the ratio of output force to input
force, known today as
<a
href="/wiki/Mechanical_advantage"
title="Mechanical advantage"
>mechanical advantage</a
>.<sup id="cite&#95;ref-Usher&#95;1-0" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-Usher-1"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
</p>
<p>
Modern machines are complex systems that consist of
structural elements,
<a
href="/wiki/Mechanism_(engineering)"
title="Mechanism (engineering)"
>mechanisms</a
>
and control components and include interfaces for convenient
use. Examples include: a wide range of
<a href="/wiki/Vehicle" title="Vehicle">vehicles</a>, such
as <a href="/wiki/Train" title="Train">trains</a>,
<a href="/wiki/Car" title="Car">automobiles</a>,
<a href="/wiki/Boat" title="Boat">boats</a> and
<a href="/wiki/Airplane" title="Airplane">airplanes</a>;
<a href="/wiki/Home_appliance" title="Home appliance"
>appliances</a
>
in the home and office, including computers, building
<a href="/wiki/Air_handler" title="Air handler"
>air handling</a
>
and
<a href="/wiki/Plumbing" title="Plumbing"
>water handling systems</a
>; as well as
<a
href="/wiki/Agricultural_machinery"
title="Agricultural machinery"
>farm machinery</a
>,
<a href="/wiki/Machine_tool" title="Machine tool"
>machine tools</a
>
and
<a href="/wiki/Automation" title="Automation"
>factory automation</a
>
systems and <a href="/wiki/Robot" title="Robot">robots</a>.
</p>
<meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" />
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2">
<h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2>
</div>
<p>
The English word <i>machine</i> comes through
<a href="/wiki/Middle_French" title="Middle French"
>Middle French</a
>
from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>
<span title="Latin-language text"
><i lang="la">machina</i></span
>,<sup id="cite&#95;ref-AHD&#95;2-0" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-AHD-2"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>2<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
which in turn derives from the
<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek"
>Greek</a
>
(<a href="/wiki/Doric_Greek" title="Doric Greek">Doric</a>
<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"
><span lang="grc">μαχανά</span></span
>
<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"
><i lang="grc-Latn">makhana</i></span
>, <a href="/wiki/Ionic_Greek" title="Ionic Greek">Ionic</a>
<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"
><span lang="grc">μηχανή</span></span
>
<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"
><i lang="grc-Latn">mekhane</i></span
>
'contrivance, machine, engine',<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-3"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-3"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>3<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
a derivation from
<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"
><span lang="grc">μῆχος</span></span
>
<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"
><i lang="grc-Latn">mekhos</i></span
>
'means, expedient, remedy'<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-4"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-4"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>4<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>).<sup id="cite&#95;ref-5" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-5"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>5<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
The word <i>mechanical</i> (Greek:
<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"
><span lang="grc">μηχανικός</span></span
>) comes from the same Greek roots. A wider meaning of
'fabric, structure' is found in classical Latin, but not in
Greek usage. This meaning is found in late medieval French,
and is adopted from the French into English in the mid-16th
century.
</p>
<p>
In the 17th century, the word machine could also mean a
scheme or plot, a meaning now expressed by the derived
<a
href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/machination"
class="extiw"
title="wikt:machination"
>machination</a
>. The modern meaning develops out of specialized
application of the term to
<a href="/wiki/Stagecraft" title="Stagecraft"
>stage engines</a
>
used in
<a
href="/wiki/Elizabethan_theater"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Elizabethan theater"
>theater</a
>
and to military
<a href="/wiki/Siege_engine" title="Siege engine"
>siege engines</a
>, both in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. The
<a href="/wiki/OED" class="mw-redirect" title="OED">OED</a>
traces the formal, modern meaning to
<a
href="/wiki/John_Harris_(writer)"
title="John Harris (writer)"
>John Harris</a
>'
<i
><a
href="/wiki/Lexicon_Technicum"
title="Lexicon Technicum"
>Lexicon Technicum</a
></i
>
(1704), which has:
</p>
<dl>
<dd>
<i
>Machine, or Engine, in Mechanicks, is whatsoever hath
Force sufficient either to raise or stop the Motion of a
Body. Simple Machines are commonly reckoned to be Six in
Number, viz. the Ballance, Leaver, Pulley, Wheel, Wedge,
and Screw. Compound Machines, or Engines, are
innumerable.</i
>
</dd>
</dl>
<p>
The word
<i
><a
href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/engine"
class="extiw"
title="wikt:engine"
>engine</a
></i
>
used as a (near-) synonym both by Harris and in later
language derives ultimately (via
<a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a
>) from Latin
<span title="Latin-language text"
><i lang="la">ingenium</i></span
>
'ingenuity, an invention'.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2">
<h2 id="History">History</h2>
</div>
<figure
class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right"
typeof="mw:File/Thumb"
>
<a
href="/wiki/File:Flint_hand_axe.JPG"
class="mw-file-description"
><img
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flint_hand_axe.JPG/250px-Flint_hand_axe.JPG"
decoding="async"
width="150"
height="219"
class="mw-file-element"
srcset="
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flint_hand_axe.JPG/330px-Flint_hand_axe.JPG 2x
"
data-file-width="935"
data-file-height="1368"
/></a>
<figcaption>
A flint
<a href="/wiki/Hand_axe" title="Hand axe">hand axe</a> was
found in
<a href="/wiki/Winchester" title="Winchester"
>Winchester</a
>.
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>
The <a href="/wiki/Hand_axe" title="Hand axe">hand axe</a>,
made by chipping flint to form a
<a
href="/wiki/Wedge_(mechanical_device)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Wedge (mechanical device)"
>wedge</a
>, in the hands of a human transforms force and movement of
the tool into a transverse splitting forces and movement of
the workpiece. The hand axe is the first example of a
<a href="/wiki/Wedge" title="Wedge">wedge</a>, the oldest of
the six classic
<a href="/wiki/Simple_machine" title="Simple machine"
>simple machines</a
>, from which most machines are based. The second oldest
simple machine was the
<a href="/wiki/Inclined_plane" title="Inclined plane"
>inclined plane</a
>
(ramp),<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-Reuleaux&#95;6-0"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-Reuleaux-6"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>6<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
which has been used since
<a
href="/wiki/Prehistoric"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Prehistoric"
>prehistoric</a
>
times to move heavy objects.<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-Conn&#95;7-0"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-Conn-7"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>7<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
><sup id="cite&#95;ref-Dutch&#95;8-0" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-Dutch-8"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>8<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
</p>
<p>
The other four simple machines were invented in the
<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East"
>ancient Near East</a
>.<sup id="cite&#95;ref-9" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-9"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>9<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
The <a href="/wiki/Wheel" title="Wheel">wheel</a>, along
with the
<a href="/wiki/Wheel_and_axle" title="Wheel and axle"
>wheel and axle</a
>
mechanism, was invented in
<a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia"
>Mesopotamia</a
>
(modern Iraq) during the 5th millennium BC.<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-10"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-10"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>10<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
The <a href="/wiki/Lever" title="Lever">lever</a> mechanism
first appeared around 5,000 years ago in the
<a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a>,
where it was used in a simple
<a
href="/wiki/Balance_scale"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Balance scale"
>balance scale</a
>,<sup id="cite&#95;ref-Paipetis&#95;11-0" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-Paipetis-11"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>11<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
and to move large objects in
<a
href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology"
title="Ancient Egyptian technology"
>ancient Egyptian technology</a
>.<sup id="cite&#95;ref-12" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-12"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>12<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
The lever was also used in the
<a href="/wiki/Shadoof" title="Shadoof">shadoof</a>
water-lifting device, the first
<a href="/wiki/Crane_(machine)" title="Crane (machine)"
>crane</a
>
machine, which appeared in Mesopotamia
<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr
><span style="white-space: nowrap">&#8201;3000 BC</span
>,<sup id="cite&#95;ref-Paipetis&#95;11-1" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-Paipetis-11"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>11<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
and then in
<a
href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology"
title="Ancient Egyptian technology"
>ancient Egyptian technology</a
>
<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr
><span style="white-space: nowrap">&#8201;2000 BC</span
>.<sup id="cite&#95;ref-13" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-13"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>13<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
The earliest evidence of
<a href="/wiki/Pulley" title="Pulley">pulleys</a> date back
to Mesopotamia in the early 2nd millennium BC,<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-Eisenbrauns&#95;14-0"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-Eisenbrauns-14"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>14<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
and
<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt"
>ancient Egypt</a
>
during the
<a
href="/wiki/Twelfth_Dynasty_of_Egypt"
title="Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt"
>Twelfth Dynasty</a
>
(1991–1802 BC).<sup id="cite&#95;ref-15" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-15"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>15<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
The
<a
href="/wiki/Screw_(simple_machine)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Screw (simple machine)"
>screw</a
>, the last of the simple machines to be invented,<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-Woods&#95;16-0"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-Woods-16"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>16<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
first appeared in
<a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia"
>Mesopotamia</a
>
during the
<a
href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire"
title="Neo-Assyrian Empire"
>Neo-Assyrian</a
>
period (911–609) BC.<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-Eisenbrauns&#95;14-1"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-Eisenbrauns-14"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>14<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
The
<a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramids" title="Egyptian pyramids"
>Egyptian pyramids</a
>
were built using three of the six simple machines, the
inclined plane, the wedge, and the lever.<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-17"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-17"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>17<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
</p>
<p>
Three of the simple machines were studied and described by
Greek philosopher
<a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a>
around the 3rd century BC: the lever, pulley and screw.<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-Asimov1988&#95;18-0"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-Asimov1988-18"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>18<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
><sup id="cite&#95;ref-Chiu&#95;19-0" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-Chiu-19"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>19<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
Archimedes discovered the principle of
<a
href="/wiki/Mechanical_advantage"
title="Mechanical advantage"
>mechanical advantage</a
>
in the lever.<sup id="cite&#95;ref-20" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-20"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>20<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
Later Greek philosophers defined the classic five simple
machines (excluding the inclined plane) and were able to
roughly calculate their mechanical advantage.<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-Usher&#95;1-1"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-Usher-1"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
<a
href="/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria"
title="Hero of Alexandria"
>Hero of Alexandria</a
>
(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr
><span style="white-space: nowrap">&#8201;10</span>–75 AD)
in his work <i>Mechanics</i> lists five mechanisms that can
"set a load in motion"; lever,
<a href="/wiki/Windlass" title="Windlass">windlass</a>,
pulley, wedge, and screw,<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-Chiu&#95;19-1"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-Chiu-19"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>19<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
and describes their fabrication and uses.<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-21"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-21"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>21<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
However, the Greeks' understanding was limited to
<a href="/wiki/Statics" title="Statics">statics</a> (the
balance of forces) and did not include
<a
href="/wiki/Dynamics_(mechanics)"
title="Dynamics (mechanics)"
>dynamics</a
>
(the tradeoff between force and distance) or the concept of
<a href="/wiki/Work_(physics)" title="Work (physics)"
>work</a
>.<sup
class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact"
style="white-space: nowrap"
>&#91;<i
><a
href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"
title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"
><span
title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)"
>citation needed</span
></a
></i
>&#93;</sup
>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb">
<a
href="/wiki/File:Agricola_Stamp_ore_crusher.png"
class="mw-file-description"
><img
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Agricola_Stamp_ore_crusher.png/250px-Agricola_Stamp_ore_crusher.png"
decoding="async"
width="250"
height="258"
class="mw-file-element"
srcset="
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Agricola_Stamp_ore_crusher.png/500px-Agricola_Stamp_ore_crusher.png 1.5x
"
data-file-width="551"
data-file-height="569"
/></a>
<figcaption>
This ore crushing machine is powered by a water wheel.
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>
The earliest practical
<a
href="/wiki/Wind-power"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Wind-power"
>wind-powered</a
>
machines, the
<a href="/wiki/Windmill" title="Windmill">windmill</a> and
<a
href="/wiki/Wind_pump"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Wind pump"
>wind pump</a
>, first appeared in the
<a
href="/wiki/Muslim_world"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Muslim world"
>Muslim world</a
>
during the
<a
href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age"
title="Islamic Golden Age"
>Islamic Golden Age</a
>, in what are now Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, by the
9th century AD.<sup id="cite&#95;ref-22" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-22"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>22<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
><sup id="cite&#95;ref-23" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-23"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>23<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
><sup id="cite&#95;ref-24" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-24"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>24<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
><sup id="cite&#95;ref-25" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-25"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>25<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
The earliest practical
<a
href="/wiki/Steam-power"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Steam-power"
>steam-powered</a
>
machine was a
<a
href="/wiki/Steam_jack"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Steam jack"
>steam jack</a
>
driven by a
<a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine"
>steam turbine</a
>, described in 1551 by
<a
href="/wiki/Taqi_ad-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma%27ruf"
title="Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma&#39;ruf"
>Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf</a
>
in
<a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Egypt" title="Ottoman Egypt"
>Ottoman Egypt</a
>.<sup id="cite&#95;ref-26" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-26"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>26<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
><sup id="cite&#95;ref-27" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-27"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>27<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
</p>
<p>
The
<a href="/wiki/Cotton_gin" title="Cotton gin">cotton gin</a>
was invented in India by the 6th century AD,<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-28"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-28"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>28<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
and the
<a href="/wiki/Spinning_wheel" title="Spinning wheel"
>spinning wheel</a
>
was invented in the
<a href="/wiki/Islamic_world" title="Islamic world"
>Islamic world</a
>
by the early 11th century,<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-Pacey&#95;29-0"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-Pacey-29"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>29<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
both of which were fundamental to the growth of the
<a
href="/wiki/Cotton_industry"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Cotton industry"
>cotton industry</a
>. The spinning wheel was also a precursor to the
<a href="/wiki/Spinning_jenny" title="Spinning jenny"
>spinning jenny</a
>.<sup id="cite&#95;ref-30" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-30"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>30<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
</p>
<p>
The earliest
<a href="/wiki/Program_(machine)" title="Program (machine)"
>programmable machines</a
>
were developed in the Muslim world. A
<a href="/wiki/Music_sequencer" title="Music sequencer"
>music sequencer</a
>, a programmable
<a
href="/wiki/Musical_instrument"
title="Musical instrument"
>musical instrument</a
>, was the earliest type of programmable machine. The first
music sequencer was an automated
<a href="/wiki/Flute" title="Flute">flute</a> player
invented by the
<a
href="/wiki/Banu_Musa"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Banu Musa"
>Banu Musa</a
>
brothers, described in their
<i
><a
href="/wiki/Book_of_Ingenious_Devices"
title="Book of Ingenious Devices"
>Book of Ingenious Devices</a
></i
>, in the 9th century.<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-Koetsier&#95;31-0"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-Koetsier-31"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>31<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
><sup id="cite&#95;ref-32" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-32"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>32<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
In 1206, Al-Jazari invented programmable
<a
href="/wiki/Automata"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Automata"
>automata</a
>/<a href="/wiki/Robot" title="Robot">robots</a>. He
described four
<a href="/wiki/Automaton" title="Automaton">automaton</a>
musicians, including drummers operated by a programmable
<a href="/wiki/Drum_machine" title="Drum machine"
>drum machine</a
>, where they could be made to play different rhythms and
different drum patterns.<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-Sharkey&#95;33-0"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-Sharkey-33"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>33<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
</p>
<p>
During the
<a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance"
>Renaissance</a
>, the dynamics of the <i>Mechanical Powers</i>, as the
simple machines were called, began to be studied from the
standpoint of how much useful work they could perform,
leading eventually to the new concept of mechanical
<a href="/wiki/Work_(physics)" title="Work (physics)"
>work</a
>. In 1586 Flemish engineer
<a href="/wiki/Simon_Stevin" title="Simon Stevin"
>Simon Stevin</a
>
derived the mechanical advantage of the inclined plane, and
it was included with the other simple machines. The complete
dynamic theory of simple machines was worked out by Italian
scientist
<a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei"
>Galileo Galilei</a
>
in 1600 in <i>Le Meccaniche</i> ("On Mechanics").<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-Krebs&#95;34-0"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-Krebs-34"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>34<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
><sup id="cite&#95;ref-Stephen&#95;35-0" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-Stephen-35"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>35<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
He was the first to understand that simple machines do not
create <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a>,
they merely transform it.<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-Krebs&#95;34-1"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-Krebs-34"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>34<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
</p>
<p>
The classic rules of sliding
<a href="/wiki/Friction" title="Friction">friction</a> in
machines were discovered by
<a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci"
>Leonardo da Vinci</a
>
(1452–1519), but remained unpublished in his notebooks. They
were rediscovered by
<a
href="/wiki/Guillaume_Amontons"
title="Guillaume Amontons"
>Guillaume Amontons</a
>
(1699) and were further developed by
<a
href="/wiki/Charles-Augustin_de_Coulomb"
title="Charles-Augustin de Coulomb"
>Charles-Augustin de Coulomb</a
>
(1785).<sup id="cite&#95;ref-36" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-36"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>36<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
</p>
<p>
<a href="/wiki/James_Watt" title="James Watt">James Watt</a>
patented his
<a
href="/wiki/Parallel_motion"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Parallel motion"
>parallel motion</a
>
linkage in 1782, which made the double acting steam engine
practical.<sup id="cite&#95;ref-37" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-37"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>37<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
The
<a href="/wiki/Boulton_and_Watt" title="Boulton and Watt"
>Boulton and Watt</a
>
steam engine and later designs powered
<a href="/wiki/Steam_locomotive" title="Steam locomotive"
>steam locomotives</a
>,
<a
href="/wiki/Marine_steam_engine"
title="Marine steam engine"
>steam ships</a
>, and
<a
href="/wiki/Steam_power"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Steam power"
>factories</a
>.
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb">
<a
href="/wiki/File:Bonsack_machine.png"
class="mw-file-description"
><img
alt="Bonsack&#39;s machine"
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Bonsack_machine.png/250px-Bonsack_machine.png"
decoding="async"
width="250"
height="209"
class="mw-file-element"
srcset="
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Bonsack_machine.png/500px-Bonsack_machine.png 1.5x
"
data-file-width="1897"
data-file-height="1584"
/></a>
<figcaption>
James Albert Bonsack's cigarette rolling machine was
invented in 1880 and patented in 1881.
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>
The
<a
href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution"
title="Industrial Revolution"
>Industrial Revolution</a
>
was a period from 1750 to 1850 where changes in agriculture,
manufacturing, mining, transportation, and technology had a
profound effect on the social, economic and cultural
conditions of the times. It began in the
<a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"
>United Kingdom</a
>, then subsequently spread throughout
<a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe"
>Western Europe</a
>,
<a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America"
>North America</a
>, <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, and
eventually the rest of the world.
</p>
<p>
Starting in the later part of the 18th century, there began
a transition in parts of
<a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain"
>Great Britain</a
>'s previously manual labour and draft-animal-based economy
towards machine-based manufacturing. It started with the
mechanisation of the textile industries, the development of
<a
href="/wiki/Iron-making"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Iron-making"
>iron-making</a
>
techniques and the increased use of
<a href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)"
>refined coal</a
>.<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-World&#95;History:&#95;Patterns&#95;of&#95;Interaction&#95;38-0"
class="reference"
><a
href="#cite_note-World_History:_Patterns_of_Interaction-38"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>38<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2">
<h2 id="Simple_machines">Simple machines</h2>
</div>
<link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1320445320"
/>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">
Main article:
<a href="/wiki/Simple_machine" title="Simple machine"
>Simple machine</a
>
</div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb">
<a
href="/wiki/File:Table_of_Mechanicks,_Cyclopaedia,_Volume_2.png"
class="mw-file-description"
><img
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Table_of_Mechanicks%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_2.png/250px-Table_of_Mechanicks%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_2.png"
decoding="async"
width="250"
height="387"
class="mw-file-element"
srcset="
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Table_of_Mechanicks%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_2.png/500px-Table_of_Mechanicks%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_2.png 1.5x
"
data-file-width="1695"
data-file-height="2621"
/></a>
<figcaption>
<i
><a
href="/wiki/Chambers%27_Cyclop%C3%A6dia"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Chambers&#39; Cyclopædia"
>Chambers' Cyclopædia</a
></i
>
(1728) has a table of simple mechanisms.<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-Mechanicks&#95;39-0"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-Mechanicks-39"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>39<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
Simple machines provide a "vocabulary" for understanding
more complex machines.
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>
The idea that a machine can be decomposed into simple
movable elements led
<a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a>
to define the <a href="/wiki/Lever" title="Lever">lever</a>,
<a href="/wiki/Pulley" title="Pulley">pulley</a> and
<a href="/wiki/Screw" title="Screw">screw</a> as
<a
href="/wiki/Simple_machines"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Simple machines"
>simple machines</a
>. By the time of the Renaissance this list increased to
include the
<a href="/wiki/Wheel_and_axle" title="Wheel and axle"
>wheel and axle</a
>,
<a
href="/wiki/Wedge_(mechanical_device)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Wedge (mechanical device)"
>wedge</a
>
and
<a href="/wiki/Inclined_plane" title="Inclined plane"
>inclined plane</a
>. The modern approach to characterizing machines focusses
on the components that allow movement, known as
<a
href="/wiki/Joint_(mechanics)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Joint (mechanics)"
>joints</a
>.
</p>
<p>
Wedge (hand axe): Perhaps the first example of a device
designed to manage power is the
<a href="/wiki/Hand_axe" title="Hand axe">hand axe</a>, also
called
<a href="/wiki/Biface" class="mw-redirect" title="Biface"
>biface</a
>
and
<a href="/wiki/Olorgesailie" title="Olorgesailie"
>Olorgesailie</a
>. A hand axe is made by chipping stone, generally flint, to
form a bifacial edge, or
<a
href="/wiki/Wedge_(mechanical_device)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Wedge (mechanical device)"
>wedge</a
>. A wedge is a simple machine that transforms lateral force
and movement of the tool into a transverse splitting force
and movement of the workpiece. The available power is
limited by the effort of the person using the tool, but
because power is the product of force and movement, the
wedge amplifies the force by reducing the movement. This
amplification, or
<a
href="/wiki/Mechanical_advantage"
title="Mechanical advantage"
>mechanical advantage</a
>
is the ratio of the input speed to output speed. For a wedge
this is given by 1/tanα, where α is the tip angle. The faces
of a wedge are modeled as straight lines to form a sliding
or
<a href="/wiki/Prismatic_joint" title="Prismatic joint"
>prismatic joint</a
>.
</p>
<p>
Lever: The <a href="/wiki/Lever" title="Lever">lever</a> is
another important and simple device for managing power. This
is a body that pivots on a fulcrum. Because the velocity of
a point farther from the pivot is greater than the velocity
of a point near the pivot, forces applied far from the pivot
are amplified near the pivot by the associated decrease in
speed. If <i>a</i> is the distance from the pivot to the
point where the input force is applied and <i>b</i> is the
distance to the point where the output force is applied,
then <i>a/b</i> is the
<a
href="/wiki/Mechanical_advantage"
title="Mechanical advantage"
>mechanical advantage</a
>
of the lever. The fulcrum of a lever is modeled as a hinged
or
<a href="/wiki/Revolute_joint" title="Revolute joint"
>revolute joint</a
>.
</p>
<p>
Wheel: The <a href="/wiki/Wheel" title="Wheel">wheel</a> is
an important early machine, such as the
<a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">chariot</a>. A wheel
uses the law of the lever to reduce the force needed to
overcome
<a href="/wiki/Friction" title="Friction">friction</a> when
pulling a load. To see this notice that the friction
associated with pulling a load on the ground is
approximately the same as the friction in a simple bearing
that supports the load on the axle of a wheel. However, the
wheel forms a lever that magnifies the pulling force so that
it overcomes the frictional resistance in the bearing.
</p>
<figure
class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right"
typeof="mw:File/Thumb"
>
<a
href="/wiki/File:Kinematics_of_Machinery_-_Figure_21.jpg"
class="mw-file-description"
><img
alt="Illustration of a Four-bar linkage from Kinematics of Machinery, 1876"
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Kinematics_of_Machinery_-_Figure_21.jpg/250px-Kinematics_of_Machinery_-_Figure_21.jpg"
decoding="async"
width="250"
height="301"
class="mw-file-element"
srcset="
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Kinematics_of_Machinery_-_Figure_21.jpg/500px-Kinematics_of_Machinery_-_Figure_21.jpg 1.5x
"
data-file-width="1768"
data-file-height="2128"
/></a>
<figcaption>
<a
href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Kinematics_of_Machinery"
class="extiw"
title="s:The Kinematics of Machinery"
><i>The Kinematics of Machinery</i> (1876)</a
>
has an illustration of a
<a href="/wiki/Four-bar_linkage" title="Four-bar linkage"
>four-bar linkage</a
>.
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>
The classification of
<a href="/wiki/Simple_machine" title="Simple machine"
>simple machines</a
>
to provide a strategy for the design of new machines was
developed by
<a href="/wiki/Franz_Reuleaux" title="Franz Reuleaux"
>Franz Reuleaux</a
>, who collected and studied over 800 elementary
machines.<sup id="cite&#95;ref-40" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-40"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>40<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
He recognized that the classical
<a href="/wiki/Simple_machine" title="Simple machine"
>simple machines</a
>
can be separated into the lever, pulley and wheel and axle
that are formed by a body rotating about a hinge, and the
inclined plane, wedge and screw that are similarly a block
sliding on a flat surface.<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-41"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-41"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>41<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
</p>
<p>
Simple machines are elementary examples of
<a href="/wiki/Kinematic_chain" title="Kinematic chain"
>kinematic chains</a
>
or
<a
href="/wiki/Linkage_(mechanical)"
title="Linkage (mechanical)"
>linkages</a
>
that are used to model
<a
href="/wiki/Mechanical_systems"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Mechanical systems"
>mechanical systems</a
>
ranging from the steam engine to robot manipulators. The
bearings that form the fulcrum of a lever and that allow the
wheel and axle and pulleys to rotate are examples of a
<a href="/wiki/Kinematic_pair" title="Kinematic pair"
>kinematic pair</a
>
called a hinged joint. Similarly, the flat surface of an
inclined plane and wedge are examples of the
<a href="/wiki/Kinematic_pair" title="Kinematic pair"
>kinematic pair</a
>
called a sliding joint. The screw is usually identified as
its own kinematic pair called a helical joint.
</p>
<p>
This realization shows that it is the joints, or the
connections that provide movement, that are the primary
elements of a machine. Starting with four types of joints,
the rotary joint, sliding joint, cam joint and gear joint,
and related connections such as cables and belts, it is
possible to understand a machine as an assembly of solid
parts that connect these joints called a
<a
href="/wiki/Mechanism_(engineering)"
title="Mechanism (engineering)"
>mechanism</a
>.<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-Uicker2003&#95;42-0"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-Uicker2003-42"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>42<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
</p>
<p>
Two levers, or cranks, are combined into a planar
<a href="/wiki/Four-bar_linkage" title="Four-bar linkage"
>four-bar linkage</a
>
by attaching a link that connects the output of one crank to
the input of another. Additional links can be attached to
form a
<a href="/wiki/Six-bar_linkage" title="Six-bar linkage"
>six-bar linkage</a
>
or in series to form a robot.<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-Uicker2003&#95;42-1"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-Uicker2003-42"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>42<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2">
<h2 id="Mechanical_systems">Mechanical systems</h2>
</div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb">
<a
href="/wiki/File:SteamEngine_Boulton%26Watt_1784.png"
class="mw-file-description"
><img
alt="Boulton &amp; Watt Steam Engine"
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/SteamEngine_Boulton%26Watt_1784.png/330px-SteamEngine_Boulton%26Watt_1784.png"
decoding="async"
width="300"
height="343"
class="mw-file-element"
srcset="
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/SteamEngine_Boulton%26Watt_1784.png/500px-SteamEngine_Boulton%26Watt_1784.png 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/SteamEngine_Boulton%26Watt_1784.png/960px-SteamEngine_Boulton%26Watt_1784.png 2x
"
data-file-width="2264"
data-file-height="2592"
/></a>
<figcaption>
The Boulton &amp; Watt Steam Engine, 1784
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>
A <b>mechanical system</b> manages
<a href="/wiki/Power_(physics)" title="Power (physics)"
>power</a
>
to accomplish a task that involves forces and movement.
Modern machines are systems consisting of (i) a power source
and
<a href="/wiki/Actuator" title="Actuator">actuators</a> that
generate forces and movement, (ii) a
<a
href="/wiki/Machine_(mechanical)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Machine (mechanical)"
>system of mechanisms</a
>
that shape the actuator input to achieve a specific
application of output forces and movement, (iii) a
controller with sensors that compare the output to a
performance goal and then directs the actuator input, and
(iv) an interface to an operator consisting of levers,
switches, and displays. This can be seen in Watt's steam
engine in which the power is provided by steam expanding to
drive the piston. The walking beam, coupler and crank
transform the linear movement of the piston into rotation of
the output pulley. Finally, the pulley rotation drives the
flyball governor which controls the valve for the steam
input to the piston cylinder.
</p>
<p>
The adjective "mechanical" refers to skill in the practical
application of an art or science, as well as relating to or
caused by movement, physical forces, properties or agents
such as is dealt with by
<a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanics</a
>.<sup id="cite&#95;ref-OED&#95;43-0" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-OED-43"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>43<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
Similarly Merriam-Webster Dictionary<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-Merriam-mechanical&#95;44-0"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-Merriam-mechanical-44"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>44<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
defines "mechanical" as relating to machinery or tools.
</p>
<p>
Power flow through a machine provides a way to understand
the performance of devices ranging from levers and gear
trains to automobiles and robotic systems. The German
mechanician
<a href="/wiki/Franz_Reuleaux" title="Franz Reuleaux"
>Franz Reuleaux</a
><sup
id="cite&#95;ref-Reuleaux1876&#95;45-0"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-Reuleaux1876-45"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>45<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
wrote, "a machine is a combination of resistant bodies so
arranged that by their means the mechanical forces of nature
can be compelled to do work accompanied by certain
determinate motion." Notice that forces and motion combine
to define
<a href="/wiki/Power_(physics)" title="Power (physics)"
>power</a
>.
</p>
<p>
More recently, Uicker et al.<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-Uicker2003&#95;42-2"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-Uicker2003-42"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>42<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
stated that a machine is "a device for applying power or
changing its direction."McCarthy and Soh<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-McCarthy2010&#95;46-0"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-McCarthy2010-46"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>46<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
describe a machine as a system that "generally consists of a
power source and a
<a
href="/wiki/Mechanism_(engineering)"
title="Mechanism (engineering)"
>mechanism</a
>
for the controlled use of this power."
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2">
<h2 id="Power_sources">Power sources</h2>
</div>
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This section
<b
>needs additional citations for
<a
href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"
title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"
>verification</a
></b
>.<span class="hide-when-compact">
Please help
<a
href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Machine"
title="Special:EditPage/Machine"
>improve this article</a
>
by
<a
href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners"
title="Help:Referencing for beginners"
>adding citations to reliable sources</a
>&#32;in this section. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed.<br /><small
><span class="plainlinks"
><i>Find sources:</i>&#160;<a
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class="external text"
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>"Machine"</a
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><i
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></span
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb">
<a
href="/wiki/File:Model_Engine_Luc_Viatour.jpg"
class="mw-file-description"
><img
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Model_Engine_Luc_Viatour.jpg/250px-Model_Engine_Luc_Viatour.jpg"
decoding="async"
width="250"
height="172"
class="mw-file-element"
srcset="
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Model_Engine_Luc_Viatour.jpg/500px-Model_Engine_Luc_Viatour.jpg 1.5x
"
data-file-width="2800"
data-file-height="1924"
/></a>
<figcaption>
Diesel engine, friction clutch and gear transmission of an
automobile
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb">
<a
href="/wiki/File:Generator-20071117.jpg"
class="mw-file-description"
><img
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Generator-20071117.jpg/250px-Generator-20071117.jpg"
decoding="async"
width="250"
height="188"
class="mw-file-element"
srcset="
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Generator-20071117.jpg/500px-Generator-20071117.jpg 1.5x
"
data-file-width="2848"
data-file-height="2136"
/></a>
<figcaption>
Early
<a href="/wiki/Ganz" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganz"
>Ganz</a
>
Electric Generator in
<a href="/wiki/Zwevegem" title="Zwevegem">Zwevegem</a>,
<a href="/wiki/West_Flanders" title="West Flanders"
>West Flanders</a
>, <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>
Human and animal effort were the original power sources for
early machines.<sup
class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact"
style="white-space: nowrap"
>&#91;<i
><a
href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"
title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"
><span
title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2021)"
>citation needed</span
></a
></i
>&#93;</sup
>
</p>
<p>
<b>Waterwheel:</b>
<a
href="/wiki/Waterwheel"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Waterwheel"
>Waterwheels</a
>
appeared around the world around 300 BC to use flowing water
to generate rotary motion, which was applied to
<a href="/wiki/Watermill" title="Watermill"
>milling grain, and powering lumber, machining and textile
operations</a
>. Modern
<a href="/wiki/Water_turbine" title="Water turbine"
>water turbines</a
>
use water flowing through a
<a href="/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">dam</a> to drive an
<a
href="/wiki/Electric_generator"
title="Electric generator"
>electric generator</a
>.
</p>
<p>
<b>Windmill:</b> Early
<a
href="/wiki/Wind_mill"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Wind mill"
>windmills</a
>
captured wind power to generate rotary motion for milling
operations. Modern
<a href="/wiki/Wind_turbine" title="Wind turbine"
>wind turbines</a
>
also drives a generator. This electricity in turn is used to
drive
<a href="/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor"
>motors</a
>
forming the actuators of mechanical systems.
</p>
<p>
<b>Engine:</b> The word engine derives from "ingenuity" and
originally referred to contrivances that may or may not be
physical devices.<sup id="cite&#95;ref-47" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-47"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>47<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
A
<a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine"
>steam engine</a
>
uses heat to boil water contained in a pressure vessel; the
expanding steam drives a piston or a turbine. This principle
can be seen in the
<a href="/wiki/Aeolipile" title="Aeolipile">aeolipile</a> of
Hero of Alexandria. This is called an
<a
href="/wiki/External_combustion_engine"
title="External combustion engine"
>external combustion engine</a
>.
</p>
<p>
An
<a
href="/wiki/Automobile"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Automobile"
>automobile</a
>
engine is called an
<a
href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine"
title="Internal combustion engine"
>internal combustion engine</a
>
because it burns fuel (an
<a
href="/wiki/Exothermic"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Exothermic"
>exothermic</a
>
chemical reaction) inside a cylinder and uses the expanding
gases to drive a
<a href="/wiki/Piston" title="Piston">piston</a>. A
<a href="/wiki/Jet_engine" title="Jet engine">jet engine</a>
uses a turbine to compress air which is burned with fuel so
that it expands through a nozzle to provide thrust to an
<a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a>, and
so is also an "internal combustion engine."<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-48"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-48"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>48<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
</p>
<p>
<b>Power plant:</b> The heat from coal and natural gas
combustion in a
<a href="/wiki/Boiler" title="Boiler">boiler</a> generates
steam that drives a
<a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine"
>steam turbine</a
>
to rotate an
<a
href="/wiki/Electric_generator"
title="Electric generator"
>electric generator</a
>. A
<a
href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant"
title="Nuclear power plant"
>nuclear power plant</a
>
uses heat from a
<a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor"
>nuclear reactor</a
>
to generate steam and
<a href="/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power"
>electric power</a
>. This power is distributed through a
<a href="/wiki/Electrical_grid" title="Electrical grid"
>network of transmission lines</a
>
for industrial and individual use.
</p>
<p>
<b>Motors:</b>
<a href="/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor"
>Electric motors</a
>
use either
<a
href="/wiki/Alternating_current"
title="Alternating current"
>AC</a
>
or
<a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">DC</a>
electric current to generate rotational movement. Electric
<a href="/wiki/Servomechanism" title="Servomechanism"
>servomotors</a
>
are the actuators for mechanical systems ranging from
<a href="/wiki/Robotics" title="Robotics"
>robotic systems</a
>
to
<a href="/wiki/Fly-by-wire" title="Fly-by-wire"
>modern aircraft</a
>.
</p>
<p>
<b>Fluid Power:</b>
<a
href="/wiki/Hydraulic_cylinder"
title="Hydraulic cylinder"
>Hydraulic</a
>
and
<a
href="/wiki/Pneumatic_cylinder"
title="Pneumatic cylinder"
>pneumatic</a
>
systems use electrically driven
<a href="/wiki/Pump" title="Pump">pumps</a> to drive water
or air respectively into cylinders to power
<a href="/wiki/Linear_actuator" title="Linear actuator"
>linear movement</a
>.
</p>
<p>
<b>Electrochemical:</b> Chemicals and materials can also be
sources of power.<sup id="cite&#95;ref-49" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-49"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>49<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
They may chemically deplete or need re-charging, as is the
case with
<a href="/wiki/Electric_battery" title="Electric battery"
>batteries</a
>,<sup id="cite&#95;ref-:0&#95;50-0" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-:0-50"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>50<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
or they may produce power without changing their state,
which is the case for
<a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell"
>solar cells</a
>
and
<a
href="/wiki/Thermoelectric_generator"
title="Thermoelectric generator"
>thermoelectric generators</a
>.<sup id="cite&#95;ref-:1&#95;51-0" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-:1-51"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>51<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
><sup id="cite&#95;ref-:2&#95;52-0" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-:2-52"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>52<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
All of these, however, still require their energy to come
from elsewhere. With batteries, it is the already existing
<a href="/wiki/Chemical_energy" title="Chemical energy"
>chemical potential energy</a
>
inside.<sup id="cite&#95;ref-:0&#95;50-1" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-:0-50"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>50<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
In solar cells and thermoelectrics, the energy source is
light and heat respectively.<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-:1&#95;51-1"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-:1-51"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>51<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
><sup id="cite&#95;ref-:2&#95;52-1" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-:2-52"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>52<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2">
<h2 id="Mechanisms">Mechanisms</h2>
</div>
<p>
The <i>mechanism</i> of a mechanical system is assembled
from components called
<i
><a href="/wiki/Machine_element" title="Machine element"
>machine elements</a
></i
>. These elements provide structure for the system and
control its movement.
</p>
<p>
The structural components are, generally, the frame members,
bearings, splines, springs, seals,
<a href="/wiki/Fastener" title="Fastener">fasteners</a> and
covers. The shape, texture and color of covers provide a
<a href="/wiki/Industrial_design" title="Industrial design"
>styling and operational interface</a
>
between the mechanical system and its users.
</p>
<p>
The assemblies that control movement are also called "<a
href="/wiki/Mechanism_(engineering)"
title="Mechanism (engineering)"
>mechanisms</a
>."<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-Reuleaux1876&#95;45-1"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-Reuleaux1876-45"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>45<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
><sup
id="cite&#95;ref-Uicker2003&#95;42-3"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-Uicker2003-42"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>42<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
Mechanisms are generally classified as
<a href="/wiki/Gear" title="Gear">gears</a> and
<a href="/wiki/Gear_train" title="Gear train">gear trains</a
>, which includes
<a
href="/wiki/Belt_drive"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Belt drive"
>belt drives</a
>
and
<a href="/wiki/Chain_drive" title="Chain drive"
>chain drives</a
>,
<a href="/wiki/Cam_(mechanism)" title="Cam (mechanism)"
>cam</a
>
and
<a href="/wiki/Cam_follower" title="Cam follower"
>follower</a
>
mechanisms, and
<a
href="/wiki/Linkage_(mechanical)"
title="Linkage (mechanical)"
>linkages</a
>, though there are other special mechanisms such as
clamping linkages,
<a href="/wiki/Geneva_drive" title="Geneva drive"
>indexing mechanisms</a
>,
<a href="/wiki/Escapement" title="Escapement"
>escapements</a
>
and friction devices such as
<a href="/wiki/Brake" title="Brake">brakes</a> and
<a href="/wiki/Clutch" title="Clutch">clutches</a>.
</p>
<p>
The number of degrees of freedom of a mechanism, or its
mobility, depends on the number of links and joints and the
types of joints used to construct the mechanism. The general
mobility of a mechanism is the difference between the
unconstrained freedom of the links and the number of
constraints imposed by the joints. It is described by the
<a
href="/wiki/Chebychev%E2%80%93Gr%C3%BCbler%E2%80%93Kutzbach_criterion"
title="Chebychev–Grübler–Kutzbach criterion"
>Chebychev–Grübler–Kutzbach criterion</a
>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3">
<h3 id="Gears_and_gear_trains">Gears and gear trains</h3>
</div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb">
<a
href="/wiki/File:Antikythera_Fragment_A_(Front).webp"
class="mw-file-description"
><img
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Antikythera_Fragment_A_%28Front%29.webp/250px-Antikythera_Fragment_A_%28Front%29.webp.png"
decoding="async"
width="250"
height="250"
class="mw-file-element"
srcset="
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Antikythera_Fragment_A_%28Front%29.webp/500px-Antikythera_Fragment_A_%28Front%29.webp.png 1.5x
"
data-file-width="3664"
data-file-height="3664"
/></a>
<figcaption>
The
<a
href="/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism"
title="Antikythera mechanism"
>Antikythera mechanism</a
>
(main fragment)
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>
The transmission of rotation between contacting toothed
wheels can be traced back to the
<a
href="/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism"
title="Antikythera mechanism"
>Antikythera mechanism</a
>
of Greece and the
<a
href="/wiki/South-pointing_chariot"
title="South-pointing chariot"
>south-pointing chariot</a
>
of <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>.
Illustrations by the renaissance scientist
<a href="/wiki/Georgius_Agricola" title="Georgius Agricola"
>Georgius Agricola</a
>
show gear trains with cylindrical teeth. The implementation
of the
<a href="/wiki/Involute_gear" title="Involute gear"
>involute tooth</a
>
yielded a standard gear design that provides a constant
speed ratio. Some important features of gears and gear
trains are:
</p>
<ul>
<li>
The ratio of the pitch circles of mating gears defines the
<a
href="/wiki/Gear_ratio"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Gear ratio"
>speed ratio</a
>
and the
<a
href="/wiki/Mechanical_advantage"
title="Mechanical advantage"
>mechanical advantage</a
>
of the gear set.
</li>
<li>
A
<a
href="/wiki/Epicyclic_gearing"
title="Epicyclic gearing"
>planetary gear train</a
>
provides high gear reduction in a compact package.
</li>
<li>
It is possible to design gear teeth for gears that are
<a
href="/wiki/Non-circular_gear"
title="Non-circular gear"
>non-circular</a
>, yet still transmit torque smoothly.
</li>
<li>
The speed ratios of
<a href="/wiki/Chain_drive" title="Chain drive">chain</a>
and
<a
href="/wiki/Belt_(mechanical)"
title="Belt (mechanical)"
>belt drives</a
>
are computed in the same way as gear ratios. See
<a href="/wiki/Bicycle_gearing" title="Bicycle gearing"
>bicycle gearing</a
>.
</li>
</ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3">
<h3 id="Cam_and_follower_mechanisms">
Cam and follower mechanisms
</h3>
</div>
<p>
A
<a href="/wiki/Cam_(mechanism)" title="Cam (mechanism)"
>cam</a
>
and
<a href="/wiki/Cam_follower" title="Cam follower"
>follower</a
>
is formed by the direct contact of two specially shaped
links. The driving link is called the cam (also see
<a href="/wiki/Camshaft" title="Camshaft">cam shaft</a>) and
the link that is driven through the direct contact of their
surfaces is called the follower. The shape of the contacting
surfaces of the
<a href="/wiki/Cam_(mechanism)" title="Cam (mechanism)"
>cam</a
>
and
<a href="/wiki/Cam_follower" title="Cam follower"
>follower</a
>
determines the movement of the mechanism.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3">
<h3 id="Linkages">Linkages</h3>
</div>
<figure
class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right"
typeof="mw:File/Thumb"
>
<a
href="/wiki/File:Landing_gear_schematic.svg"
class="mw-file-description"
><img
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Landing_gear_schematic.svg/250px-Landing_gear_schematic.svg.png"
decoding="async"
width="250"
height="250"
class="mw-file-element"
srcset="
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Landing_gear_schematic.svg/500px-Landing_gear_schematic.svg.png 1.5x
"
data-file-width="600"
data-file-height="600"
/></a>
<figcaption>
Schematic of the actuator and four-bar linkage that
position an aircraft landing gear
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>
A
<a
href="/wiki/Linkage_(mechanical)"
title="Linkage (mechanical)"
>linkage</a
>
is a collection of links connected by joints. Generally, the
links are the structural elements and the joints allow
movement. Perhaps the single most useful example is the
planar
<a href="/wiki/Four-bar_linkage" title="Four-bar linkage"
>four-bar linkage</a
>. However, there are many more special linkages:
</p>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Watt%27s_linkage"
title="Watt&#39;s linkage"
>Watt's linkage</a
>
is a four-bar linkage that generates an approximate
straight line. It was critical to the operation of his
design for the steam engine. This linkage also appears in
vehicle suspensions to prevent side-to-side movement of
the body relative to the wheels. Also see the article
<a
href="/wiki/Parallel_motion"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Parallel motion"
>Parallel motion</a
>.
</li>
<li>
The success of Watt's linkage lead to the design of
similar approximate straight-line linkages, such as
<a
href="/wiki/Hoekens_linkage"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Hoekens linkage"
>Hoeken's linkage</a
>
and
<a
href="/wiki/Chebyshev_linkage"
title="Chebyshev linkage"
>Chebyshev's linkage</a
>.
</li>
<li>
The
<a
href="/wiki/Peaucellier-Lipkin_linkage"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Peaucellier-Lipkin linkage"
>Peaucellier linkage</a
>
generates a true straight-line output from a rotary input.
</li>
<li>
The
<a href="/wiki/Sarrus_linkage" title="Sarrus linkage"
>Sarrus linkage</a
>
is a spatial linkage that generates straight-line movement
from a rotary input.
</li>
<li>
The
<a href="/wiki/Klann_linkage" title="Klann linkage"
>Klann linkage</a
>
and the
<a href="/wiki/Theo_Jansen" title="Theo Jansen"
>Jansen linkage</a
>
are recent inventions that provide interesting walking
movements. They are respectively a six-bar and an
eight-bar linkage.
</li>
</ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3">
<h3 id="Planar_mechanism">Planar mechanism</h3>
</div>
<p>
A planar mechanism is a mechanical system that is
constrained so the trajectories of points in all the bodies
of the system lie on planes parallel to a ground plane. The
rotational axes of hinged joints that connect the bodies in
the system are perpendicular to this ground plane.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3">
<h3 id="Spherical_mechanism">Spherical mechanism</h3>
</div>
<p>
A <b>spherical mechanism</b> is a mechanical system in which
the bodies move in a way that the trajectories of points in
the system lie on concentric spheres. The rotational axes of
hinged joints that connect the bodies in the system pass
through the center of these circle.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3">
<h3 id="Spatial_mechanism">Spatial mechanism</h3>
</div>
<p>
A <b>spatial mechanism</b> is a mechanical system that has
at least one body that moves in a way that its point
trajectories are general space curves. The rotational axes
of hinged joints that connect the bodies in the system form
lines in space that do not intersect and have distinct
common normals.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3">
<h3 id="Flexure_mechanisms">Flexure mechanisms</h3>
</div>
<p>
A flexure mechanism consists of a series of rigid bodies
connected by compliant elements (also known as flexure
joints) that is designed to produce a geometrically
well-defined motion upon application of a force.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2">
<h2 id="Machine_elements">Machine elements</h2>
</div>
<p>
The elementary mechanical components of a machine are termed
<b
><a href="/wiki/Machine_element" title="Machine element"
>machine elements</a
></b
>. These elements consist of three basic types (i)
<i>structural components</i> such as frame members,
bearings, axles, splines,
<a href="/wiki/Fastener" title="Fastener">fasteners</a>,
seals, and lubricants, (ii)
<i
><a
href="/wiki/Mechanism_(engineering)"
title="Mechanism (engineering)"
>mechanisms</a
></i
>
that control movement in various ways such as
<a href="/wiki/Gear_train" title="Gear train">gear trains</a
>,
<a href="/wiki/Belt_(mechanical)" title="Belt (mechanical)"
>belt</a
>
or
<a href="/wiki/Chain_drive" title="Chain drive"
>chain drives</a
>,
<a
href="/wiki/Linkage_(mechanical)"
title="Linkage (mechanical)"
>linkages</a
>,
<a href="/wiki/Cam_(mechanism)" title="Cam (mechanism)"
>cam</a
>
and
<a href="/wiki/Cam_follower" title="Cam follower"
>follower</a
>
systems, including
<a href="/wiki/Brake" title="Brake">brakes</a> and
<a href="/wiki/Clutch" title="Clutch">clutches</a>, and
(iii) <i>control components</i> such as buttons, switches,
indicators, sensors, actuators and computer controllers.<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-53"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-53"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>53<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
While generally not considered to be a machine element, the
shape, texture and color of covers are an important part of
a machine that provide a
<a href="/wiki/Industrial_design" title="Industrial design"
>styling and operational interface</a
>
between the mechanical components of a machine and its
users.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3">
<h3 id="Structural_components">Structural components</h3>
</div>
<p>
A number of machine elements provide important structural
functions such as the frame, bearings, splines, spring and
seals.
</p>
<ul>
<li>
The recognition that the frame of a mechanism is an
important machine element changed the name
<a
href="/wiki/Three-bar_linkage"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Three-bar linkage"
>three-bar linkage</a
>
into
<a href="/wiki/Four-bar_linkage" title="Four-bar linkage"
>four-bar linkage</a
>. Frames are generally assembled from
<a href="/wiki/Truss" title="Truss">truss</a> or
<a href="/wiki/Beam_(structure)" title="Beam (structure)"
>beam</a
>
elements.
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Bearing_(mechanical)"
title="Bearing (mechanical)"
>Bearings</a
>
are components designed to manage the interface between
moving elements and are the source of
<a href="/wiki/Friction" title="Friction">friction</a> in
machines. In general, bearings are designed for pure
rotation or
<a
href="/wiki/Linear-motion_bearing"
title="Linear-motion bearing"
>straight line movement</a
>.
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Spline_(mechanical)"
title="Spline (mechanical)"
>Splines</a
>
and
<a
href="/wiki/Key_(engineering)"
title="Key (engineering)"
>keys</a
>
are two ways to reliably mount an
<a href="/wiki/Axle" title="Axle">axle</a> to a wheel,
pulley or gear so that torque can be transferred through
the connection.
</li>
<li>
<a href="/wiki/Spring_(device)" title="Spring (device)"
>Springs</a
>
provides forces that can either hold components of a
machine in place or acts as a
<a
href="/wiki/Suspension_(vehicle)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Suspension (vehicle)"
>suspension</a
>
to support part of a machine.
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Seal_(mechanical)"
title="Seal (mechanical)"
>Seals</a
>
are used between mating parts of a machine to ensure
fluids, such as water, hot gases, or lubricant do not leak
between the mating surfaces.
</li>
<li>
<a href="/wiki/Fastener" title="Fastener">Fasteners</a>
such as <a href="/wiki/Screw" title="Screw">screws</a>,
bolts, spring clips, and
<a href="/wiki/Rivet" title="Rivet">rivets</a> are
critical to the assembly of components of a machine.
Fasteners are generally considered to be removable. In
contrast, joining methods, such as
<a href="/wiki/Welding" title="Welding">welding</a>,
<a href="/wiki/Soldering" title="Soldering">soldering</a>,
<a href="/wiki/Crimp_(joining)" title="Crimp (joining)"
>crimping</a
>
and the application of
<a href="/wiki/Adhesive" title="Adhesive">adhesives</a>,
usually require cutting the parts to disassemble the
components
</li>
</ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2">
<h2 id="Controllers">Controllers</h2>
</div>
<p>
Controllers combine
<a href="/wiki/Sensor" title="Sensor">sensors</a>,
<a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, and
<a href="/wiki/Actuator" title="Actuator">actuators</a> to
maintain the performance of components of a machine. Perhaps
the best known is the
<a
href="/wiki/Centrifugal_governor"
title="Centrifugal governor"
>flyball governor</a
>
for a steam engine. Examples of these devices range from a
<a href="/wiki/Thermostat" title="Thermostat">thermostat</a>
that as temperature rises opens a valve to cooling water to
speed controllers such as the
<a href="/wiki/Cruise_control" title="Cruise control"
>cruise control</a
>
system in an automobile. The
<a
href="/wiki/Programmable_logic_controller"
title="Programmable logic controller"
>programmable logic controller</a
>
replaced relays and specialized control mechanisms with a
programmable computer.
<a href="/wiki/Servomotor" title="Servomotor"
>Servomotors</a
>
that accurately position a shaft in response to an
electrical command are the actuators that make
<a href="/wiki/Robot" title="Robot">robotic systems</a>
possible.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2">
<h2 id="Computing_machines">Computing machines</h2>
</div>
<figure
class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right"
typeof="mw:File/Thumb"
>
<a
href="/wiki/File:Arithmometre,_designed_by_Charles_Xavier_Thomas,_c._1820,_for_the_four_rules_of_arithmetic,_manufactured_1866-1870_AD,_TM10901_-_Tekniska_museet_-_Stockholm,_Sweden_-_DSC01567.JPG"
class="mw-file-description"
><img
alt="Arithmometr computing machine"
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Arithmometre%2C_designed_by_Charles_Xavier_Thomas%2C_c._1820%2C_for_the_four_rules_of_arithmetic%2C_manufactured_1866-1870_AD%2C_TM10901_-_Tekniska_museet_-_Stockholm%2C_Sweden_-_DSC01567.JPG/250px-thumbnail.jpg"
decoding="async"
width="250"
height="149"
class="mw-file-element"
srcset="
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Arithmometre%2C_designed_by_Charles_Xavier_Thomas%2C_c._1820%2C_for_the_four_rules_of_arithmetic%2C_manufactured_1866-1870_AD%2C_TM10901_-_Tekniska_museet_-_Stockholm%2C_Sweden_-_DSC01567.JPG/500px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x
"
data-file-width="5372"
data-file-height="3205"
/></a>
<figcaption>
The arithmometre was designed by Charles Xavier Thomas,
<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr
><span style="white-space: nowrap">&#8201;1820</span>, for
the four rules of arithmetic. It was manufactured
1866–1870 AD and exhibited in the Tekniska museet,
Stockholm, Sweden.
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>
<a href="/wiki/Charles_Babbage" title="Charles Babbage"
>Charles Babbage</a
>
designed machines to tabulate logarithms and other functions
in 1837. His
<a href="/wiki/Difference_engine" title="Difference engine"
>Difference engine</a
>
can be considered an advanced
<a
href="/wiki/Mechanical_calculator"
title="Mechanical calculator"
>mechanical calculator</a
>
and his
<a
href="/wiki/Analytical_Engine"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Analytical Engine"
>Analytical Engine</a
>
a forerunner of the modern
<a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computer</a>,
though none of the larger designs were completed in
Babbage's lifetime.
</p>
<p>
The
<a href="/wiki/Arithmometer" title="Arithmometer"
>Arithmometer</a
>
and the
<a href="/wiki/Comptometer" title="Comptometer"
>Comptometer</a
>
are mechanical computers that are precursors to
<a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer"
>modern digital computers</a
>. Models used to study modern computers are termed
<a
href="/wiki/Finite-state_machine"
title="Finite-state machine"
>State machine</a
>
and
<a href="/wiki/Turing_machine" title="Turing machine"
>Turing machine</a
>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2">
<h2 id="Molecular_machines">Molecular machines</h2>
</div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb">
<a
href="/wiki/File:Protein_translation.gif"
class="mw-file-description"
><img
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Protein_translation.gif"
decoding="async"
width="250"
height="250"
class="mw-file-element"
data-file-width="250"
data-file-height="250"
/></a>
<figcaption>
A
<a href="/wiki/Ribosome" title="Ribosome">ribosome</a> is
a
<a
href="/wiki/Biological_machine"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Biological machine"
>biological machine</a
>
that utilizes
<a href="/wiki/Protein_dynamics" title="Protein dynamics"
>protein dynamics</a
>.
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>
The biological molecule
<a href="/wiki/Myosin" title="Myosin">myosin</a> reacts to
ATP and ADP to alternately engage with an actin filament and
change its shape in a way that exerts a force, and then
disengage to reset its shape, or conformation. This acts as
the molecular drive that causes muscle contraction.
Similarly the biological molecule
<a href="/wiki/Kinesin" title="Kinesin">kinesin</a> has two
sections that alternately engage and disengage with
microtubules causing the molecule to move along the
microtubule and transport vesicles within the cell, and
<a href="/wiki/Dynein" title="Dynein">dynein</a>, which
moves cargo inside cells towards the nucleus and produces
the axonemal beating of
<a
href="/wiki/Cilia#Motile_cilia"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Cilia"
>motile cilia</a
>
and
<a
href="/wiki/Flagella"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Flagella"
>flagella</a
>. "In effect, the motile cilium is a nanomachine composed
of perhaps over 600 proteins in molecular complexes, many of
which also function independently as nanomachines.
<a
href="/wiki/Flexible_linker"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Flexible linker"
>Flexible linkers</a
>
allow the
<a
href="/wiki/Protein_domain#Domains_and_protein_flexibility"
title="Protein domain"
>mobile protein domains</a
>
connected by them to recruit their binding partners and
induce long-range
<a
href="/wiki/Allostery"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Allostery"
>allostery</a
>
via
<a
href="/wiki/Protein_dynamics#Global_flexibility:_multiple_domains"
title="Protein dynamics"
>protein domain dynamics</a
>. "<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-Satir2008&#95;54-0"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-Satir2008-54"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>54<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
Other biological machines are responsible for energy
production, for example
<a href="/wiki/ATP_synthase" title="ATP synthase"
>ATP synthase</a
>
which harnesses energy from
<a
href="/wiki/Proton-motive_force"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Proton-motive force"
>proton gradients across membranes</a
>
to drive a turbine-like motion used to synthesise
<a
href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate"
title="Adenosine triphosphate"
>ATP</a
>, the energy currency of a cell.<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-55"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-55"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>55<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
Still other machines are responsible for
<a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression"
>gene expression</a
>, including
<a href="/wiki/DNA_polymerase" title="DNA polymerase"
>DNA polymerases</a
>
for replicating <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>,<sup
class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact"
style="white-space: nowrap"
>&#91;<i
><a
href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"
title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"
><span
title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2018)"
>citation needed</span
></a
></i
>&#93;</sup
>
<a href="/wiki/RNA_polymerase" title="RNA polymerase"
>RNA polymerases</a
>
for producing
<a href="/wiki/Messenger_RNA" title="Messenger RNA">mRNA</a
>,<sup
class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact"
style="white-space: nowrap"
>&#91;<i
><a
href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"
title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"
><span
title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2018)"
>citation needed</span
></a
></i
>&#93;</sup
>
the
<a href="/wiki/Spliceosome" title="Spliceosome"
>spliceosome</a
>
for removing
<a href="/wiki/Intron" title="Intron">introns</a>, and the
<a href="/wiki/Ribosome" title="Ribosome">ribosome</a> for
<a
href="/wiki/Protein_synthesis"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Protein synthesis"
>synthesising proteins</a
>. These machines and their
<a href="/wiki/Protein_dynamics" title="Protein dynamics"
>nanoscale dynamics</a
>
are far more complex than any
<a href="/wiki/Molecular_machine" title="Molecular machine"
>molecular machines</a
>
that have yet been artificially constructed.<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-pmid21570668&#95;56-0"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-pmid21570668-56"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>56<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
These molecules are increasingly considered to be
<a
href="/wiki/Nanomachines"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Nanomachines"
>nanomachines</a
>.<sup
class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact"
style="white-space: nowrap"
>&#91;<i
><a
href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"
title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"
><span
title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2018)"
>citation needed</span
></a
></i
>&#93;</sup
>
</p>
<p>
Researchers have used DNA to construct nano-dimensioned
<a href="/wiki/Four-bar_linkage" title="Four-bar linkage"
>four-bar linkages</a
>.<sup id="cite&#95;ref-57" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-57"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>57<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
><sup id="cite&#95;ref-58" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-58"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>58<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2">
<h2 id="Impact">Impact</h2>
</div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3">
<h3 id="Mechanization_and_automation">
Mechanization and automation
</h3>
</div>
<link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1320445320"
/>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">
Main articles:
<a href="/wiki/Mechanization" title="Mechanization"
>Mechanization</a
>
and
<a href="/wiki/Automation" title="Automation">Automation</a>
</div>
<figure
class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right"
typeof="mw:File/Thumb"
>
<a
href="/wiki/File:Agricola1.jpg"
class="mw-file-description"
><img
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Agricola1.jpg/250px-Agricola1.jpg"
decoding="async"
width="250"
height="419"
class="mw-file-element"
srcset="
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Agricola1.jpg/500px-Agricola1.jpg 1.5x
"
data-file-width="729"
data-file-height="1221"
/></a>
<figcaption>
This water-powered
<a
href="/wiki/Hoist_(device)#Mine_hoists"
title="Hoist (device)"
>mine hoist</a
>
was used for raising ore. This woodblock is from
<i
><a href="/wiki/De_re_metallica" title="De re metallica"
>De re metallica</a
></i
>
by Georg Bauer (Latinized name
<a
href="/wiki/Georgius_Agricola"
title="Georgius Agricola"
>Georgius Agricola</a
>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr
><span style="white-space: nowrap">&#8201;1555</span>), an
early mining textbook that contains numerous drawings and
descriptions of mining equipment.
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>
Mechanization (or mechanisation in
<a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English"
>BE</a
>) is providing human operators with machinery that assists
them with the muscular requirements of work or displaces
muscular work. In some fields, mechanization includes the
use of hand tools. In modern usage, such as in engineering
or economics, mechanization implies machinery more complex
than hand tools and would not include simple devices such as
an un-geared horse or donkey mill. Devices that cause speed
changes or changes to or from reciprocating to rotary
motion, using means such as
<a href="/wiki/Gear" title="Gear">gears</a>,
<a href="/wiki/Pulley" title="Pulley">pulleys</a> or
<a href="/wiki/Line_shaft" title="Line shaft">sheaves</a>
and belts,
<a href="/wiki/Drive_shaft" title="Drive shaft">shafts</a>,
<a href="/wiki/Cam_(mechanism)" title="Cam (mechanism)"
>cams</a
>
and
<a href="/wiki/Crank_(mechanism)" title="Crank (mechanism)"
>cranks</a
>, usually are considered machines. After electrification,
when most small machinery was no longer hand powered,
mechanization was synonymous with motorized machines.<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-59"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-59"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>59<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
</p>
<p>
Automation is the use of
<a href="/wiki/Control_system" title="Control system"
>control systems</a
>
and
<a
href="/wiki/Information_technology"
title="Information technology"
>information technologies</a
>
to reduce the need for human work in the production of goods
and services. In the scope of
<a
href="/wiki/Industrialization"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Industrialization"
>industrialization</a
>, automation is a step beyond
<a href="/wiki/Mechanization" title="Mechanization"
>mechanization</a
>. Whereas mechanization provides human operators with
machinery to assist them with the muscular requirements of
work, automation greatly decreases the need for human
sensory and mental requirements as well. Automation plays an
increasingly important role in the
<a href="/wiki/World_economy" title="World economy"
>world economy</a
>
and in daily experience.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3">
<h3 id="Automata">Automata</h3>
</div>
<link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1320445320"
/>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">
Main article:
<a href="/wiki/Automaton" title="Automaton">Automaton</a>
</div>
<p>
An automaton (plural: automata or automatons) is a
self-operating machine. The word is sometimes used to
describe a <a href="/wiki/Robot" title="Robot">robot</a>,
more specifically an
<a href="/wiki/Autonomous_robot" title="Autonomous robot"
>autonomous robot</a
>. A <i>Toy Automaton</i> was patented in 1863.<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-60"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-60"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>60<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2">
<h2 id="Mechanics">Mechanics</h2>
</div>
<p>
Usher<sup id="cite&#95;ref-61" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-61"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>61<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
reports that
<a
href="/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria"
title="Hero of Alexandria"
>Hero of Alexandria's</a
>
treatise on <i>Mechanics</i> focused on the study of lifting
heavy weights. Today
<a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanics</a>
refers to the mathematical analysis of the forces and
movement of a mechanical system, and consists of the study
of the
<a href="/wiki/Kinematics" title="Kinematics">kinematics</a>
and
<a
href="/wiki/Analytical_dynamics"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Analytical dynamics"
>dynamics</a
>
of these systems.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3">
<h3 id="Dynamics_of_machines">Dynamics of machines</h3>
</div>
<p>
The
<a
href="/wiki/Rigid-body_dynamics"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Rigid-body dynamics"
>dynamic analysis</a
>
of machines begins with a rigid-body model to determine
reactions at the bearings, at which point the elasticity
effects are included. The
<a
href="/wiki/Rigid-body_dynamics"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Rigid-body dynamics"
>rigid-body dynamics</a
>
studies the movement of systems of interconnected bodies
under the action of external forces. The assumption that the
bodies are rigid, which means that they do not deform under
the action of applied forces, simplifies the analysis by
reducing the parameters that describe the configuration of
the system to the translation and rotation of reference
frames attached to each body.<sup
id="cite&#95;ref-62"
class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-62"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>62<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
><sup id="cite&#95;ref-63" class="reference"
><a href="#cite_note-63"
><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>63<span
class="cite-bracket"
>&#93;</span
></a
></sup
>
</p>
<p>
The dynamics of a rigid body system is defined by its
<a
href="/wiki/Equations_of_motion"
title="Equations of motion"
>equations of motion</a
>, which are derived using either
<a
href="/wiki/Newtons_laws_of_motion"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Newtons laws of motion"
>Newtons laws of motion</a
>
or
<a
href="/wiki/Lagrangian_mechanics"
title="Lagrangian mechanics"
>Lagrangian mechanics</a
>. The solution of these equations of motion defines how the
configuration of the system of rigid bodies changes as a
function of time. The formulation and solution of rigid body
dynamics is an important tool in the computer simulation of
<a
href="/wiki/Mechanical_systems"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Mechanical systems"
>mechanical systems</a
>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3">
<h3 id="Kinematics_of_machines">Kinematics of machines</h3>
</div>
<p>
The dynamic analysis of a machine requires the determination
of the movement, or
<a href="/wiki/Kinematics" title="Kinematics">kinematics</a
>, of its component parts, known as kinematic analysis. The
assumption that the system is an assembly of rigid
components allows rotational and translational movement to
be modeled mathematically as
<a
href="/wiki/Rigid_transformation"
title="Rigid transformation"
>Euclidean, or rigid, transformations</a
>. This allows the position, velocity and acceleration of
all points in a component to be determined from these
properties for a reference point, and the angular position,
<a href="/wiki/Angular_velocity" title="Angular velocity"
>angular velocity</a
>
and
<a
href="/wiki/Angular_acceleration"
title="Angular acceleration"
>angular acceleration</a
>
of the component.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2">
<h2 id="Machine_design">Machine design</h2>
</div>
<p>
Machine design refers to the procedures and techniques used
to address the three phases of a
<a
href="/wiki/Product_lifecycle_management"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Product lifecycle management"
>machine's lifecycle</a
>:
</p>
<ol>
<li>
invention, which involves the identification of a need,
development of requirements, concept generation, prototype
development, manufacturing, and verification testing;
</li>
<li>
performance engineering involves enhancing manufacturing
efficiency, reducing service and maintenance demands,
adding features and improving effectiveness, and
validation testing;
</li>
<li>
recycle is the decommissioning and disposal phase and
includes recovery and reuse of materials and components.
</li>
</ol>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2">
<h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>
</div>
<link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1320445320"
/>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">
Main articles:
<a
href="/wiki/Outline_of_machines"
title="Outline of machines"
>Outline of machines</a
>
and
<a
href="/wiki/Outline_of_industrial_machinery"
title="Outline of industrial machinery"
>Outline of industrial machinery</a
>
</div>
<ul>
<li>
<a href="/wiki/Automaton" title="Automaton">Automaton</a>
</li>
<li>
<a href="/wiki/Gear_train" title="Gear train"
>Gear train</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/History_of_technology"
title="History of technology"
>History of technology</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Linkage_(mechanical)"
title="Linkage (mechanical)"
>Linkage (mechanical)</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/List_of_mechanical,_electrical_and_electronic_equipment_manufacturing_companies_by_revenue"
class="mw-redirect"
title="List of mechanical, electrical and electronic equipment manufacturing companies by revenue"
>List of mechanical, electrical and electronic equipment
manufacturing companies by revenue</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Mechanism_(engineering)"
title="Mechanism (engineering)"
>Mechanism (engineering)</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Mechanical_advantage"
title="Mechanical advantage"
>Mechanical advantage</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Outline_of_automation"
title="Outline of automation"
>Outline of automation</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Outline_of_machines"
title="Outline of machines"
>Outline of machines</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a href="/wiki/Power_(physics)" title="Power (physics)"
>Power (physics)</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Simple_machines"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Simple machines"
>Simple machines</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology"
>Technology</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a href="/wiki/Virtual_work" title="Virtual work"
>Virtual work</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a href="/wiki/Work_(physics)" title="Work (physics)"
>Work (physics)</a
>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2">
<h2 id="References">References</h2>
</div>
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<ol class="references">
<li id="cite&#95;note-Usher-1">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
>^
<a href="#cite_ref-Usher_1-0"
><sup
><i><b>a</b></i></sup
></a
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<a href="#cite_ref-Usher_1-1"
><sup
><i><b>b</b></i></sup
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><cite
id="CITEREFUsher1988"
class="citation book cs1"
>Usher, Abbott Payson (1988).
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xuDDqqa8FlwC&amp;pg=PA196"
><i>A History of Mechanical Inventions</i></a
>. USA: Courier Dover Publications. p.&#160;98.
<a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)"
>ISBN</a
>&#160;<a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-25593-4"
title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-25593-4"
><bdi>978-0-486-25593-4</bdi></a
>.
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160818135506/https://books.google.com/books?id=xuDDqqa8FlwC&amp;pg=PA196"
>Archived</a
>
from the original on 2016-08-18.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=A+History+of+Mechanical+Inventions&amp;rft.place=USA&amp;rft.pages=98&amp;rft.pub=Courier+Dover+Publications&amp;rft.date=1988&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-486-25593-4&amp;rft.aulast=Usher&amp;rft.aufirst=Abbott+Payson&amp;rft&#95;id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxuDDqqa8FlwC%26pg%3DPA196&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-AHD-2">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-AHD_2-0">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><i>The American Heritage Dictionary</i>, Second
College Edition. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1985.</span
>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-3">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dmhxanh%2F"
>"μηχανή"</a
>
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110629140054/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=mhxanh%2F"
>Archived</a
>
2011-06-29 at the
<a
href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine"
title="Wayback Machine"
>Wayback Machine</a
>, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott,
<i>A Greek-English Lexicon</i>, on Perseus
project</span
>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-4">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dmh%3Dxos"
>"μῆχος"</a
>
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110629140106/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=mh=xos"
>Archived</a
>
2011-06-29 at the
<a
href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine"
title="Wayback Machine"
>Wayback Machine</a
>, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott,
<i>A Greek-English Lexicon</i>, on Perseus
project</span
>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-5">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
>Oxford Dictionaries,
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180426213204/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/machine"
>machine</a
></span
>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-Reuleaux-6">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-Reuleaux_6-0">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
>Karl von Langsdorf (1826) <i>Machinenkunde</i>,
quoted in
<link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFReuleaux1876"
class="citation book cs1"
>Reuleaux, Franz (1876).
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://archive.org/details/kinematicsmachi01reulgoog"
><i
>The kinematics of machinery: Outlines of a
theory of machines</i
></a
>. MacMillan. pp.&#160;<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://archive.org/details/kinematicsmachi01reulgoog/page/n524"
>604</a
>.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+kinematics+of+machinery%3A+Outlines+of+a+theory+of+machines&amp;rft.pages=604&amp;rft.pub=MacMillan&amp;rft.date=1876&amp;rft.aulast=Reuleaux&amp;rft.aufirst=Franz&amp;rft&#95;id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fkinematicsmachi01reulgoog&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-Conn-7">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-Conn_7-0">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
>Therese McGuire, <i>Light on Sacred Stones</i>, in
<link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFConnTherese&#95;Benedict&#95;McGuire2007"
class="citation book cs1"
>Conn, Marie A.; Therese Benedict McGuire (2007).
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kEPkDyvek3sC&amp;pg=PA23"
><i
>Not etched in stone: essays on ritual memory,
soul, and society</i
></a
>. University Press of America. p.&#160;23.
<a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)"
>ISBN</a
>&#160;<a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-3702-2"
title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-3702-2"
><bdi>978-0-7618-3702-2</bdi></a
>.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Not+etched+in+stone%3A+essays+on+ritual+memory%2C+soul%2C+and+society&amp;rft.pages=23&amp;rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-7618-3702-2&amp;rft.aulast=Conn&amp;rft.aufirst=Marie+A.&amp;rft.au=Therese+Benedict+McGuire&amp;rft&#95;id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkEPkDyvek3sC%26pg%3DPA23&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-Dutch-8">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dutch_8-0">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFDutch1999"
class="citation web cs1"
>Dutch, Steven (1999).
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160821064729/http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/westtech/xancient.htm"
>"Pre-Greek Accomplishments"</a
>. <i>Legacy of the Ancient World</i>. Prof. Steve
Dutch's page, Univ. of Wisconsin at Green Bay.
Archived from
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/westtech/xancient.htm"
>the original</a
>
on August 21, 2016<span
class="reference-accessdate"
>. Retrieved
<span class="nowrap">March 13,</span> 2012</span
>.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Legacy+of+the+Ancient+World&amp;rft.atitle=Pre-Greek+Accomplishments&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.aulast=Dutch&amp;rft.aufirst=Steven&amp;rft&#95;id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uwgb.edu%2Fdutchs%2Fwesttech%2Fxancient.htm&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-9">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFMoorey1999"
class="citation book cs1"
>Moorey, Peter Roger Stuart (1999).
<i
>Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries:
The Archaeological Evidence</i
>.
<a href="/wiki/Eisenbrauns" title="Eisenbrauns"
>Eisenbrauns</a
>.
<a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)"
>ISBN</a
>&#160;<a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781575060422"
title="Special:BookSources/9781575060422"
><bdi>9781575060422</bdi></a
>.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Ancient+Mesopotamian+Materials+and+Industries%3A+The+Archaeological+Evidence&amp;rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.isbn=9781575060422&amp;rft.aulast=Moorey&amp;rft.aufirst=Peter+Roger+Stuart&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-10">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFD.T.&#95;Potts2012"
class="citation book cs1"
>D.T. Potts (2012).
<i
>A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient
Near East</i
>. p.&#160;285.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Archaeology+of+the+Ancient+Near+East&amp;rft.pages=285&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.au=D.T.+Potts&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-Paipetis-11">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
>^
<a href="#cite_ref-Paipetis_11-0"
><sup
><i><b>a</b></i></sup
></a
>
<a href="#cite_ref-Paipetis_11-1"
><sup
><i><b>b</b></i></sup
></a
></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFPaipetisCeccarelli2010"
class="citation book cs1"
>Paipetis, S. A.; Ceccarelli, Marco (2010).
<i
>The Genius of Archimedes -- 23 Centuries of
Influence on Mathematics, Science and
Engineering: Proceedings of an International
Conference held at Syracuse, Italy, June 8-10,
2010</i
>.
<a
href="/wiki/Springer_Science_%26_Business_Media"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Springer Science &amp; Business Media"
>Springer Science &amp; Business Media</a
>. p.&#160;416.
<a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)"
>ISBN</a
>&#160;<a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789048190911"
title="Special:BookSources/9789048190911"
><bdi>9789048190911</bdi></a
>.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Genius+of+Archimedes+--+23+Centuries+of+Influence+on+Mathematics%2C+Science+and+Engineering%3A+Proceedings+of+an+International+Conference+held+at+Syracuse%2C+Italy%2C+June+8-10%2C+2010&amp;rft.pages=416&amp;rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.isbn=9789048190911&amp;rft.aulast=Paipetis&amp;rft.aufirst=S.+A.&amp;rft.au=Ceccarelli%2C+Marco&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-12">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFClarkeEngelbach1990"
class="citation book cs1"
>Clarke, Somers; Engelbach, Reginald (1990).
<i
>Ancient Egyptian Construction and
Architecture</i
>.
<a
href="/wiki/Courier_Corporation"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Courier Corporation"
>Courier Corporation</a
>. pp.&#160;<span class="nowrap">86–</span>90.
<a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)"
>ISBN</a
>&#160;<a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780486264851"
title="Special:BookSources/9780486264851"
><bdi>9780486264851</bdi></a
>.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Construction+and+Architecture&amp;rft.pages=86-90&amp;rft.pub=Courier+Corporation&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft.isbn=9780486264851&amp;rft.aulast=Clarke&amp;rft.aufirst=Somers&amp;rft.au=Engelbach%2C+Reginald&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-13">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFFaiella2006"
class="citation book cs1"
>Faiella, Graham (2006).
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bGMyBTS0-v0C&amp;pg=PA27"
><i>The Technology of Mesopotamia</i></a
>.
<a
href="/wiki/The_Rosen_Publishing_Group"
class="mw-redirect"
title="The Rosen Publishing Group"
>The Rosen Publishing Group</a
>. p.&#160;27.
<a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)"
>ISBN</a
>&#160;<a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781404205604"
title="Special:BookSources/9781404205604"
><bdi>9781404205604</bdi></a
>.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Technology+of+Mesopotamia&amp;rft.pages=27&amp;rft.pub=The+Rosen+Publishing+Group&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.isbn=9781404205604&amp;rft.aulast=Faiella&amp;rft.aufirst=Graham&amp;rft&#95;id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbGMyBTS0-v0C%26pg%3DPA27&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-Eisenbrauns-14">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
>^
<a href="#cite_ref-Eisenbrauns_14-0"
><sup
><i><b>a</b></i></sup
></a
>
<a href="#cite_ref-Eisenbrauns_14-1"
><sup
><i><b>b</b></i></sup
></a
></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFMoorey1999"
class="citation book cs1"
>Moorey, Peter Roger Stuart (1999).
<i
>Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries:
The Archaeological Evidence</i
>.
<a href="/wiki/Eisenbrauns" title="Eisenbrauns"
>Eisenbrauns</a
>. p.&#160;4.
<a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)"
>ISBN</a
>&#160;<a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781575060422"
title="Special:BookSources/9781575060422"
><bdi>9781575060422</bdi></a
>.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Ancient+Mesopotamian+Materials+and+Industries%3A+The+Archaeological+Evidence&amp;rft.pages=4&amp;rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.isbn=9781575060422&amp;rft.aulast=Moorey&amp;rft.aufirst=Peter+Roger+Stuart&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-15">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFArnold1991"
class="citation book cs1"
>Arnold, Dieter (1991).
<i>Building in Egypt: Pharaonic Stone Masonry</i>.
Oxford University Press. p.&#160;71.
<a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)"
>ISBN</a
>&#160;<a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195113747"
title="Special:BookSources/9780195113747"
><bdi>9780195113747</bdi></a
>.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Building+in+Egypt%3A+Pharaonic+Stone+Masonry&amp;rft.pages=71&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=1991&amp;rft.isbn=9780195113747&amp;rft.aulast=Arnold&amp;rft.aufirst=Dieter&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-Woods-16">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-Woods_16-0">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFWoodsMary&#95;B.&#95;Woods2000"
class="citation book cs1"
>Woods, Michael; Mary B. Woods (2000).
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E1tzW_aDnxsC&amp;pg=PA58"
><i
>Ancient Machines: From Wedges to
Waterwheels</i
></a
>. USA: Twenty-First Century Books. p.&#160;58.
<a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)"
>ISBN</a
>&#160;<a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8225-2994-7"
title="Special:BookSources/0-8225-2994-7"
><bdi>0-8225-2994-7</bdi></a
>.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Ancient+Machines%3A+From+Wedges+to+Waterwheels&amp;rft.place=USA&amp;rft.pages=58&amp;rft.pub=Twenty-First+Century+Books&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.isbn=0-8225-2994-7&amp;rft.aulast=Woods&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael&amp;rft.au=Mary+B.+Woods&amp;rft&#95;id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE1tzW&#95;aDnxsC%26pg%3DPA58&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-17">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFWood2000"
class="citation book cs1"
>Wood, Michael (2000).
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://archive.org/details/ancientcommunica00wood/page/35"
><i
>Ancient Machines: From Grunts to Graffiti</i
></a
>. Minneapolis, MN: Runestone Press. pp.&#160;<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://archive.org/details/ancientcommunica00wood/page/35"
>35, 36</a
>.
<a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)"
>ISBN</a
>&#160;<a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8225-2996-3"
title="Special:BookSources/0-8225-2996-3"
><bdi>0-8225-2996-3</bdi></a
>.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Ancient+Machines%3A+From+Grunts+to+Graffiti&amp;rft.place=Minneapolis%2C+MN&amp;rft.pages=35%2C+36&amp;rft.pub=Runestone+Press&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.isbn=0-8225-2996-3&amp;rft.aulast=Wood&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael&amp;rft&#95;id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientcommunica00wood%2Fpage%2F35&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-Asimov1988-18">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b
><a href="#cite_ref-Asimov1988_18-0">^</a></b
></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFAsimov1988"
class="citation cs2"
>Asimov, Isaac (1988),
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pSKvaLV6zkcC&amp;pg=PA88"
><i>Understanding Physics</i></a
>, New York, New York, USA: Barnes &amp; Noble,
p.&#160;88,
<a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)"
>ISBN</a
>&#160;<a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88029-251-1"
title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88029-251-1"
><bdi>978-0-88029-251-1</bdi></a
>,
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160818203229/https://books.google.com/books?id=pSKvaLV6zkcC&amp;pg=PA88"
>archived</a
>
from the original on 2016-08-18.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Understanding+Physics&amp;rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York%2C+USA&amp;rft.pages=88&amp;rft.pub=Barnes+%26+Noble&amp;rft.date=1988&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-88029-251-1&amp;rft.aulast=Asimov&amp;rft.aufirst=Isaac&amp;rft&#95;id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpSKvaLV6zkcC%26pg%3DPA88&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-Chiu-19">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
>^
<a href="#cite_ref-Chiu_19-0"
><sup
><i><b>a</b></i></sup
></a
>
<a href="#cite_ref-Chiu_19-1"
><sup
><i><b>b</b></i></sup
></a
></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFChiu2010"
class="citation cs2"
>Chiu, Y. C. (2010),
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://books.google.com/books?id=osNrPO3ivZoC&amp;pg=PA42"
><i
>An introduction to the History of Project
Management</i
></a
>, Delft: Eburon Academic Publishers, p.&#160;42,
<a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)"
>ISBN</a
>&#160;<a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-5972-437-2"
title="Special:BookSources/978-90-5972-437-2"
><bdi>978-90-5972-437-2</bdi></a
>,
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160818202910/https://books.google.com/books?id=osNrPO3ivZoC&amp;pg=PA42"
>archived</a
>
from the original on 2016-08-18</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=An+introduction+to+the+History+of+Project+Management&amp;rft.place=Delft&amp;rft.pages=42&amp;rft.pub=Eburon+Academic+Publishers&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.isbn=978-90-5972-437-2&amp;rft.aulast=Chiu&amp;rft.aufirst=Y.+C.&amp;rft&#95;id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DosNrPO3ivZoC%26pg%3DPA42&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-20">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFOstdiekBord,&#95;Donald2005"
class="citation book cs1"
>Ostdiek, Vern; Bord, Donald (2005).
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7kz2pd14hPUC&amp;pg=PA123"
><i>Inquiry into Physics</i></a
>. Thompson Brooks/Cole. p.&#160;123.
<a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)"
>ISBN</a
>&#160;<a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-534-49168-0"
title="Special:BookSources/978-0-534-49168-0"
><bdi>978-0-534-49168-0</bdi></a
>.
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130528052651/http://books.google.com/books?id=7kz2pd14hPUC&amp;pg=PA123"
>Archived</a
>
from the original on 2013-05-28<span
class="reference-accessdate"
>. Retrieved
<span class="nowrap">2008-05-22</span></span
>.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Inquiry+into+Physics&amp;rft.pages=123&amp;rft.pub=Thompson+Brooks%2FCole&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-534-49168-0&amp;rft.aulast=Ostdiek&amp;rft.aufirst=Vern&amp;rft.au=Bord%2C+Donald&amp;rft&#95;id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7kz2pd14hPUC%26pg%3DPA123&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-21">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFStrizhakIgor&#95;PenkovToivo&#95;Pappel2004"
class="citation conference cs1"
>Strizhak, Viktor; Igor Penkov; Toivo Pappel
(2004).
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FqZvlMnjqY0C&amp;q=%22archimedean+simple+machine%22"
>"Evolution of design, use, and strength
calculations of screw threads and threaded
joints"</a
>.
<i
>HMM2004 International Symposium on History of
Machines and Mechanisms</i
>. Kluwer Academic publishers. p.&#160;245.
<a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)"
>ISBN</a
>&#160;<a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4020-2203-4"
title="Special:BookSources/1-4020-2203-4"
><bdi>1-4020-2203-4</bdi></a
>.
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130607095045/http://books.google.com/books?id=FqZvlMnjqY0C&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=%22archimedean+simple+machine%22&amp;source=gbs_summary_r&amp;cad=0"
>Archived</a
>
from the original on 2013-06-07<span
class="reference-accessdate"
>. Retrieved
<span class="nowrap">2008-05-21</span></span
>.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=conference&amp;rft.atitle=Evolution+of+design%2C+use%2C+and+strength+calculations+of+screw+threads+and+threaded+joints&amp;rft.btitle=HMM2004+International+Symposium+on+History+of+Machines+and+Mechanisms&amp;rft.pages=245&amp;rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic+publishers&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.isbn=1-4020-2203-4&amp;rft.aulast=Strizhak&amp;rft.aufirst=Viktor&amp;rft.au=Igor+Penkov&amp;rft.au=Toivo+Pappel&amp;rft&#95;id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFqZvlMnjqY0C%26q%3D%2522archimedean%2Bsimple%2Bmachine%2522&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-22">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><a
href="/wiki/Ahmad_Y_Hassan"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Ahmad Y Hassan"
>Ahmad Y Hassan</a
>,
<a
href="/wiki/Donald_Routledge_Hill"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Donald Routledge Hill"
>Donald Routledge Hill</a
>
(1986).
<i>Islamic Technology: An illustrated history</i>,
p. 54.
<a
href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press"
title="Cambridge University Press"
>Cambridge University Press</a
>.
<link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106"
/><a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)"
>ISBN</a
>&#160;<a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-42239-6"
title="Special:BookSources/0-521-42239-6"
><bdi>0-521-42239-6</bdi></a
>.</span
>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-23">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFLucas2006"
class="citation cs2"
>Lucas, Adam (2006),
<i
>Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling
Technology</i
>, Brill Publishers, p.&#160;65,
<a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)"
>ISBN</a
>&#160;<a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-14649-0"
title="Special:BookSources/90-04-14649-0"
><bdi>90-04-14649-0</bdi></a
></cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Wind%2C+Water%2C+Work%3A+Ancient+and+Medieval+Milling+Technology&amp;rft.pages=65&amp;rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.isbn=90-04-14649-0&amp;rft.aulast=Lucas&amp;rft.aufirst=Adam&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-24">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFEldridge1980"
class="citation book cs1"
>Eldridge, Frank (1980).
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://archive.org/details/windmachines00fran/page/15"
><i>Wind Machines</i></a
>
(2nd&#160;ed.). New York: Litton Educational
Publishing, Inc. p.&#160;<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://archive.org/details/windmachines00fran/page/15"
>15</a
>.
<a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)"
>ISBN</a
>&#160;<a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-442-26134-9"
title="Special:BookSources/0-442-26134-9"
><bdi>0-442-26134-9</bdi></a
>.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Wind+Machines&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pages=15&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.pub=Litton+Educational+Publishing%2C+Inc.&amp;rft.date=1980&amp;rft.isbn=0-442-26134-9&amp;rft.aulast=Eldridge&amp;rft.aufirst=Frank&amp;rft&#95;id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwindmachines00fran%2Fpage%2F15&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-25">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFShepherd2011"
class="citation book cs1"
>Shepherd, William (2011).
<i>Electricity Generation Using Wind Power</i>
(1&#160;ed.). Singapore: World Scientific
Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. p.&#160;4.
<a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)"
>ISBN</a
>&#160;<a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-4304-13-9"
title="Special:BookSources/978-981-4304-13-9"
><bdi>978-981-4304-13-9</bdi></a
>.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Electricity+Generation+Using+Wind+Power&amp;rft.place=Singapore&amp;rft.pages=4&amp;rft.edition=1&amp;rft.pub=World+Scientific+Publishing+Co.+Pte.+Ltd.&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.isbn=978-981-4304-13-9&amp;rft.aulast=Shepherd&amp;rft.aufirst=William&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-26">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%201.htm"
>Taqi al-Din and the First Steam Turbine, 1551
A.D.</a
>
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080218171045/http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%201.htm"
>Archived</a
>
2008-02-18 at the
<a
href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine"
title="Wayback Machine"
>Wayback Machine</a
>, web page, accessed on line 23 October 2009; this
web page refers to
<a
href="/wiki/Ahmad_Y_Hassan"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Ahmad Y Hassan"
>Ahmad Y Hassan</a
>
(1976),
<i>Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering</i
>, pp. 34–5, Institute for the History of Arabic
Science,
<a
href="/wiki/University_of_Aleppo"
title="University of Aleppo"
>University of Aleppo</a
>.</span
>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-27">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><a
href="/wiki/Ahmad_Y._Hassan"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Ahmad Y. Hassan"
>Ahmad Y. Hassan</a
>
(1976),
<i>Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering</i
>, p. 34–35, Institute for the History of Arabic
Science,
<a
href="/wiki/University_of_Aleppo"
title="University of Aleppo"
>University of Aleppo</a
></span
>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-28">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="Lakwete"
class="citation book cs1"
>Lakwete, Angela (2003).
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uOMaGVnPfBcC"
><i
>Inventing the Cotton Gin: Machine and Myth in
Antebellum America</i
></a
>. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
pp.&#160;<span class="nowrap">1–</span>6.
<a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)"
>ISBN</a
>&#160;<a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801873942"
title="Special:BookSources/9780801873942"
><bdi>9780801873942</bdi></a
>.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Inventing+the+Cotton+Gin%3A+Machine+and+Myth+in+Antebellum+America&amp;rft.place=Baltimore&amp;rft.pages=1-6&amp;rft.pub=The+Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.isbn=9780801873942&amp;rft.au=Lakwete%2C+Angela&amp;rft&#95;id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuOMaGVnPfBcC&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-Pacey-29">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pacey_29-0">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFPacey1991"
class="citation book cs1"
>Pacey, Arnold (1991) [1990].
<i
>Technology in World Civilization: A
Thousand-Year History</i
>
(First MIT Press paperback&#160;ed.). Cambridge
MA: The MIT Press. pp.&#160;<span class="nowrap"
>23–</span
>24.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Technology+in+World+Civilization%3A+A+Thousand-Year+History&amp;rft.place=Cambridge+MA&amp;rft.pages=23-24&amp;rft.edition=First+MIT+Press+paperback&amp;rft.pub=The+MIT+Press&amp;rft.date=1991&amp;rft.aulast=Pacey&amp;rft.aufirst=Arnold&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-30">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFŽmolek2013"
class="citation book cs1"
>Žmolek, Michael Andrew (2013).
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-RKaAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA328"
><i
>Rethinking the Industrial Revolution: Five
Centuries of Transition from Agrarian to
Industrial Capitalism in England</i
></a
>. BRILL. p.&#160;328.
<a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)"
>ISBN</a
>&#160;<a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004251793"
title="Special:BookSources/9789004251793"
><bdi>9789004251793</bdi></a
>.
<q
>The spinning jenny was basically an adaptation
of its precursor the spinning wheel</q
></cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Rethinking+the+Industrial+Revolution%3A+Five+Centuries+of+Transition+from+Agrarian+to+Industrial+Capitalism+in+England&amp;rft.pages=328&amp;rft.pub=BRILL&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.isbn=9789004251793&amp;rft.aulast=%C5%BDmolek&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael+Andrew&amp;rft&#95;id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-RKaAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA328&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-Koetsier-31">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b
><a href="#cite_ref-Koetsier_31-0">^</a></b
></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFKoetsier2001"
class="citation cs2"
>Koetsier, Teun (2001), "On the prehistory of
programmable machines: musical automata, looms,
calculators", <i>Mechanism and Machine Theory</i>,
<b>36</b> (5), Elsevier:
<span class="nowrap">589–</span>603,
<a
href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Doi (identifier)"
>doi</a
>:<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0094-114X%2801%2900005-2"
>10.1016/S0094-114X(01)00005-2</a
>.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Mechanism+and+Machine+Theory&amp;rft.atitle=On+the+prehistory+of+programmable+machines%3A+musical+automata%2C+looms%2C+calculators&amp;rft.volume=36&amp;rft.issue=5&amp;rft.pages=589-603&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft&#95;id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0094-114X%2801%2900005-2&amp;rft.aulast=Koetsier&amp;rft.aufirst=Teun&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-32">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFKapurCarnegieMurphyLong2017"
class="citation journal cs1"
>Kapur, Ajay; Carnegie, Dale; Murphy, Jim; Long,
Jason (2017).
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1355771817000103"
>"Loudspeakers Optional: A history of
non-loudspeaker-based electroacoustic music"</a
>.
<i
><a
href="/wiki/Organised_Sound"
title="Organised Sound"
>Organised Sound</a
></i
>. <b>22</b> (2).
<a
href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press"
title="Cambridge University Press"
>Cambridge University Press</a
>: <span class="nowrap">195–</span>205.
<a
href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Doi (identifier)"
>doi</a
>:<span
class="id-lock-free"
title="Freely accessible"
><a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1355771817000103"
>10.1017/S1355771817000103</a
></span
>.
<a
href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISSN (identifier)"
>ISSN</a
>&#160;<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1355-7718"
>1355-7718</a
>.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Organised+Sound&amp;rft.atitle=Loudspeakers+Optional%3A+A+history+of+non-loudspeaker-based+electroacoustic+music&amp;rft.volume=22&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=195-205&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft&#95;id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1355771817000103&amp;rft.issn=1355-7718&amp;rft.aulast=Kapur&amp;rft.aufirst=Ajay&amp;rft.au=Carnegie%2C+Dale&amp;rft.au=Murphy%2C+Jim&amp;rft.au=Long%2C+Jason&amp;rft&#95;id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS1355771817000103&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-Sharkey-33">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sharkey_33-0">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
>Professor Noel Sharkey,
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070629182810/http://www.shef.ac.uk/marcoms/eview/articles58/robot.html"
>A 13th Century Programmable Robot (Archive)</a
>,
<a
href="/wiki/University_of_Sheffield"
title="University of Sheffield"
>University of Sheffield</a
>.</span
>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-Krebs-34">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
>^
<a href="#cite_ref-Krebs_34-0"
><sup
><i><b>a</b></i></sup
></a
>
<a href="#cite_ref-Krebs_34-1"
><sup
><i><b>b</b></i></sup
></a
></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFKrebs2004"
class="citation book cs1"
>Krebs, Robert E. (2004).
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MTXdplfiz-cC&amp;q=%22mechanics+Galileo+analyzed%22&amp;pg=PA163"
><i
>Groundbreaking Experiments, Inventions, and
Discoveries of the Middle Ages</i
></a
>. Greenwood Publishing Group. p.&#160;163.
<a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)"
>ISBN</a
>&#160;<a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32433-8"
title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32433-8"
><bdi>978-0-313-32433-8</bdi></a
>.
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130528045000/http://books.google.com/books?id=MTXdplfiz-cC&amp;pg=PA163&amp;dq=%22mechanics+Galileo+analyzed%22#v=onepage&amp;q=%22mechanics%20Galileo%20analyzed%22&amp;f=false"
>Archived</a
>
from the original on 2013-05-28<span
class="reference-accessdate"
>. Retrieved
<span class="nowrap">2008-05-21</span></span
>.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Groundbreaking+Experiments%2C+Inventions%2C+and+Discoveries+of+the+Middle+Ages&amp;rft.pages=163&amp;rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-313-32433-8&amp;rft.aulast=Krebs&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert+E.&amp;rft&#95;id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMTXdplfiz-cC%26q%3D%2522mechanics%2BGalileo%2Banalyzed%2522%26pg%3DPA163&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-Stephen-35">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stephen_35-0">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFStephenLowell&#95;Cardwell2001"
class="citation book cs1"
>Stephen, Donald; Lowell Cardwell (2001).
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BSfpFLV1nkAC&amp;q=%22simple+machine%22+galileo&amp;pg=PA86"
><i
>Wheels, clocks, and rockets: a history of
technology</i
></a
>. USA: W. W. Norton &amp; Company. pp.&#160;<span
class="nowrap"
>85–</span
>87.
<a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)"
>ISBN</a
>&#160;<a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-32175-3"
title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-32175-3"
><bdi>978-0-393-32175-3</bdi></a
>.
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160818204648/https://books.google.com/books?id=BSfpFLV1nkAC&amp;pg=PA86&amp;dq=%22simple+machine%22+galileo#v=onepage&amp;q=%22simple%20machine%22%20galileo&amp;f=false"
>Archived</a
>
from the original on 2016-08-18.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Wheels%2C+clocks%2C+and+rockets%3A+a+history+of+technology&amp;rft.place=USA&amp;rft.pages=85-87&amp;rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-393-32175-3&amp;rft.aulast=Stephen&amp;rft.aufirst=Donald&amp;rft.au=Lowell+Cardwell&amp;rft&#95;id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBSfpFLV1nkAC%26q%3D%2522simple%2Bmachine%2522%2Bgalileo%26pg%3DPA86&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-36">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFArmstrong-Hélouvry1991"
class="citation book cs1"
>Armstrong-Hélouvry, Brian (1991).
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0zk_zI3xACgC&amp;pg=PA10"
><i>Control of machines with friction</i></a
>. USA: Springer. p.&#160;10.
<a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)"
>ISBN</a
>&#160;<a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-9133-3"
title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-9133-3"
><bdi>978-0-7923-9133-3</bdi></a
>.
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160818141554/https://books.google.com/books?id=0zk_zI3xACgC&amp;pg=PA10"
>Archived</a
>
from the original on 2016-08-18.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Control+of+machines+with+friction&amp;rft.place=USA&amp;rft.pages=10&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=1991&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-7923-9133-3&amp;rft.aulast=Armstrong-H%C3%A9louvry&amp;rft.aufirst=Brian&amp;rft&#95;id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0zk&#95;zI3xACgC%26pg%3DPA10&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-37">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
>Pennock, G. R., James Watt (1736-1819),
<i
>Distinguished Figures in Mechanism and Machine
Science,</i
>
ed. M. Ceccarelli, Springer, 2007,
<link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106"
/><a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)"
>ISBN</a
>&#160;<a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-6365-7"
title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-6365-7"
><bdi>978-1-4020-6365-7</bdi></a
>
(Print) 978-1-4020-6366-4 (Online).</span
>
</li>
<li
id="cite&#95;note-World&#95;History:&#95;Patterns&#95;of&#95;Interaction-38"
>
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b
><a
href="#cite_ref-World_History:_Patterns_of_Interaction_38-0"
>^</a
></b
></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFBeck&#95;B.1999"
class="citation book cs1"
>Beck B., Roger (1999).
<i>World History: Patterns of Interaction</i>.
Evanston, Illinois: McDougal Littell.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=World+History%3A+Patterns+of+Interaction&amp;rft.place=Evanston%2C+Illinois&amp;rft.pub=McDougal+Littell&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.aulast=Beck+B.&amp;rft.aufirst=Roger&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-Mechanicks-39">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b
><a href="#cite_ref-Mechanicks_39-0">^</a></b
></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106"
/><cite
id="CITEREFChambers1728"
class="citation cs2"
>Chambers, Ephraim (1728), "Table of Mechanicks",
<i
>Cyclopaedia, A Useful Dictionary of Arts and
Sciences</i
>, vol.&#160;2, London, England, p.&#160;528,
Plate 11</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Cyclopaedia%2C+A+Useful+Dictionary+of+Arts+and+Sciences&amp;rft.atitle=Table+of+Mechanicks&amp;rft.volume=2&amp;rft.pages=528%2C+Plate+11&amp;rft.date=1728&amp;rft.aulast=Chambers&amp;rft.aufirst=Ephraim&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
>.</span
>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-40">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><a
href="/wiki/Francis_C._Moon"
title="Francis C. Moon"
>Moon, F. C.</a
>,
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://kmoddl.library.cornell.edu/facets/moon61899.htm"
>The Reuleaux Collection of Kinematic Mechanisms
at Cornell University, 1999</a
>
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150518064706/http://kmoddl.library.cornell.edu/facets/moon61899.htm"
>Archived</a
>
2015-05-18 at the
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href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine"
title="Wayback Machine"
>Wayback Machine</a
></span
>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-41">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
>Hartenberg, R.S. &amp; J. Denavit (1964)
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://kmoddl.library.cornell.edu/bib.php?m=23"
>Kinematic synthesis of linkages</a
>
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110519063139/http://kmoddl.library.cornell.edu/bib.php?m=23"
>Archived</a
>
2011-05-19 at the
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href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine"
title="Wayback Machine"
>Wayback Machine</a
>, New York: McGraw-Hill, online link from
<a
href="/wiki/Cornell_University"
title="Cornell University"
>Cornell University</a
>.</span
>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-Uicker2003-42">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
>^
<a href="#cite_ref-Uicker2003_42-0"
><sup
><i><b>a</b></i></sup
></a
>
<a href="#cite_ref-Uicker2003_42-1"
><sup
><i><b>b</b></i></sup
></a
>
<a href="#cite_ref-Uicker2003_42-2"
><sup
><i><b>c</b></i></sup
></a
>
<a href="#cite_ref-Uicker2003_42-3"
><sup
><i><b>d</b></i></sup
></a
></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
>J. J. Uicker, G. R. Pennock, and J. E. Shigley,
2003, <i>Theory of Machines and Mechanisms</i>,
Oxford University Press, New York.</span
>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-OED-43">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-OED_43-0">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106"
/><cite
id="CITEREFReference-OED-mechanical"
class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"
><span
class="id-lock-subscription"
title="Paid subscription required"
><a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=mechanical"
>"mechanical"</a
></span
>.
<i
><a
href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary"
title="Oxford English Dictionary"
>Oxford English Dictionary</a
></i
>
(Online&#160;ed.). Oxford University Press.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=mechanical&amp;rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&amp;rft.edition=Online&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft&#95;id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fsearch%2Fdictionary%2F%3Fq%3Dmechanical&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
>&#32;<span
style="
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color: var(--color-subtle, #555);
"
>(Subscription or
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required.)</span
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>
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<li id="cite&#95;note-Merriam-mechanical-44">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b
><a href="#cite_ref-Merriam-mechanical_44-0"
>^</a
></b
></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
>Merriam-Webster Dictionary
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/mechanical"
>Definition of mechanical</a
>
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111020103442/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/mechanical"
>Archived</a
>
2011-10-20 at the
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title="Wayback Machine"
>Wayback Machine</a
></span
>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-Reuleaux1876-45">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
>^
<a href="#cite_ref-Reuleaux1876_45-0"
><sup
><i><b>a</b></i></sup
></a
>
<a href="#cite_ref-Reuleaux1876_45-1"
><sup
><i><b>b</b></i></sup
></a
></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
>Reuleaux, F., 1876
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://archive.org/details/kinematicsmachi01reulgoog"
><i>The Kinematics of Machinery</i></a
>
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130602121819/http://books.google.com/books?id=WUZVAAAAMAAJ&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=kinematics+of+machinery&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ei=qpn4Tse-E9SasgLcsZytDw&amp;ved=0CEQQ6AEwAQ"
>Archived</a
>
2013-06-02 at the
<a
href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine"
title="Wayback Machine"
>Wayback Machine</a
>
(trans. and annotated by A. B. W. Kennedy),
reprinted by Dover, New York (1963)</span
>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-McCarthy2010-46">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b
><a href="#cite_ref-McCarthy2010_46-0">^</a></b
></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
>J. M. McCarthy and G. S. Soh, 2010,
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jv9mQyjRIw4C&amp;pg=PA231"
><i>Geometric Design of Linkages,</i></a
>
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160819020038/https://books.google.com/books?id=jv9mQyjRIw4C&amp;pg=PA231"
>Archived</a
>
2016-08-19 at the
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href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine"
title="Wayback Machine"
>Wayback Machine</a
>
Springer, New York.</span
>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-47">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/engine"
>Merriam-Webster's definition of engine</a
></span
>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-48">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
>"Internal combustion engine",
<i>Concise Encyclopedia of Science and Technology</i
>, Third Edition, Sybil P. Parker, ed. McGraw-Hill,
Inc., 1994, p. 998 .</span
>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-49">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFBrettBrett1993"
class="citation book cs1"
>Brett, Christopher M. A; Brett, Ana Maria
Oliveira (1993).
<i
>Electrochemistry: principles, methods, and
applications</i
>. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.
<a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)"
>ISBN</a
>&#160;<a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-855389-2"
title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-855389-2"
><bdi>978-0-19-855389-2</bdi></a
>.
<a
href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="OCLC (identifier)"
>OCLC</a
>&#160;<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/26398887"
>26398887</a
>.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Electrochemistry%3A+principles%2C+methods%2C+and+applications&amp;rft.place=Oxford%3B+New+York&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft&#95;id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F26398887&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-855389-2&amp;rft.aulast=Brett&amp;rft.aufirst=Christopher+M.+A&amp;rft.au=Brett%2C+Ana+Maria+Oliveira&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-:0-50">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
>^
<a href="#cite_ref-:0_50-0"
><sup
><i><b>a</b></i></sup
></a
>
<a href="#cite_ref-:0_50-1"
><sup
><i><b>b</b></i></sup
></a
></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFCrompton2000"
class="citation book cs1"
>Crompton, T. R. (2000-03-20).
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QmVR7qiB5AUC&amp;q=battery+one+or+more+cells&amp;pg=PA11"
><i>Battery Reference Book</i></a
>. Elsevier.
<a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)"
>ISBN</a
>&#160;<a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-049995-6"
title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-049995-6"
><bdi>978-0-08-049995-6</bdi></a
>.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Battery+Reference+Book&amp;rft.pub=Elsevier&amp;rft.date=2000-03-20&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-08-049995-6&amp;rft.aulast=Crompton&amp;rft.aufirst=T.+R.&amp;rft&#95;id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQmVR7qiB5AUC%26q%3Dbattery%2Bone%2Bor%2Bmore%2Bcells%26pg%3DPA11&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-:1-51">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
>^
<a href="#cite_ref-:1_51-0"
><sup
><i><b>a</b></i></sup
></a
>
<a href="#cite_ref-:1_51-1"
><sup
><i><b>b</b></i></sup
></a
></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
class="citation web cs1"
><a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="http://solarbotics.net/starting/200202_solar_cells/200202_solar_cell_use.html"
>"Solar Cells -- Performance And Use"</a
>.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Solar+Cells+--+Performance+And+Use&amp;rft&#95;id=http%3A%2F%2Fsolarbotics.net%2Fstarting%2F200202&#95;solar&#95;cells%2F200202&#95;solar&#95;cell&#95;use.html&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-:2-52">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
>^
<a href="#cite_ref-:2_52-0"
><sup
><i><b>a</b></i></sup
></a
>
<a href="#cite_ref-:2_52-1"
><sup
><i><b>b</b></i></sup
></a
></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFFernández-YáñezRomeroArmasCerretti2021"
class="citation journal cs1"
>Fernández-Yáñez, P.; Romero, V.; Armas, O.;
Cerretti, G. (2021-09-01).
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.applthermaleng.2021.117291"
>"Thermal management of thermoelectric
generators for waste energy recovery"</a
>. <i>Applied Thermal Engineering</i>.
<b>196</b> 117291.
<a
href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Bibcode (identifier)"
>Bibcode</a
>:<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021AppTE.19617291F"
>2021AppTE.19617291F</a
>.
<a
href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Doi (identifier)"
>doi</a
>:<span
class="id-lock-free"
title="Freely accessible"
><a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.applthermaleng.2021.117291"
>10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2021.117291</a
></span
>.
<a
href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISSN (identifier)"
>ISSN</a
>&#160;<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1359-4311"
>1359-4311</a
>.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Applied+Thermal+Engineering&amp;rft.atitle=Thermal+management+of+thermoelectric+generators+for+waste+energy+recovery&amp;rft.volume=196&amp;rft.artnum=117291&amp;rft.date=2021-09-01&amp;rft.issn=1359-4311&amp;rft&#95;id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.applthermaleng.2021.117291&amp;rft&#95;id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021AppTE.19617291F&amp;rft.aulast=Fern%C3%A1ndez-Y%C3%A1%C3%B1ez&amp;rft.aufirst=P.&amp;rft.au=Romero%2C+V.&amp;rft.au=Armas%2C+O.&amp;rft.au=Cerretti%2C+G.&amp;rft&#95;id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.applthermaleng.2021.117291&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-53">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
>Robert L. Norton, <i>Machine Design,</i> (4th
Edition), Prentice-Hall, 2010</span
>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-Satir2008-54">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b
><a href="#cite_ref-Satir2008_54-0">^</a></b
></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFSatirSøren&#95;T.&#95;Christensen2008"
class="citation journal cs1"
>Satir, Peter; Søren T. Christensen (2008-03-26).
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2386530"
>"Structure and function of mammalian cilia"</a
>. <i>Histochemistry and Cell Biology</i>.
<b>129</b> (6):
<span class="nowrap">687–</span>93.
<a
href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Doi (identifier)"
>doi</a
>:<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00418-008-0416-9"
>10.1007/s00418-008-0416-9</a
>.
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>PMC</a
>&#160;<span
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title="Freely accessible"
><a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2386530"
>2386530</a
></span
>.
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href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="PMID (identifier)"
>PMID</a
>&#160;<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18365235"
>18365235</a
>. 1432-119X.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Histochemistry+and+Cell+Biology&amp;rft.atitle=Structure+and+function+of+mammalian+cilia&amp;rft.volume=129&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.pages=687-93&amp;rft.date=2008-03-26&amp;rft&#95;id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2386530%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft&#95;id=info%3Apmid%2F18365235&amp;rft&#95;id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00418-008-0416-9&amp;rft.aulast=Satir&amp;rft.aufirst=Peter&amp;rft.au=S%C3%B8ren+T.+Christensen&amp;rft&#95;id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2386530&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-55">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFKinbaraAida2005"
class="citation journal cs1"
>Kinbara, Kazushi; Aida, Takuzo (2005-04-01).
"Toward Intelligent Molecular Machines: Directed
Motions of Biological and Artificial Molecules and
Assemblies". <i>Chemical Reviews</i>.
<b>105</b> (4):
<span class="nowrap">1377–</span>1400.
<a
href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Bibcode (identifier)"
>Bibcode</a
>:<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005ChRv..105.1377K"
>2005ChRv..105.1377K</a
>.
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href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Doi (identifier)"
>doi</a
>:<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fcr030071r"
>10.1021/cr030071r</a
>.
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href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISSN (identifier)"
>ISSN</a
>&#160;<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0009-2665"
>0009-2665</a
>.
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href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="PMID (identifier)"
>PMID</a
>&#160;<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15826015"
>15826015</a
>.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Chemical+Reviews&amp;rft.atitle=Toward+Intelligent+Molecular+Machines%3A+Directed+Motions+of+Biological+and+Artificial+Molecules+and+Assemblies&amp;rft.volume=105&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=1377-1400&amp;rft.date=2005-04-01&amp;rft&#95;id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fcr030071r&amp;rft.issn=0009-2665&amp;rft&#95;id=info%3Apmid%2F15826015&amp;rft&#95;id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005ChRv..105.1377K&amp;rft.aulast=Kinbara&amp;rft.aufirst=Kazushi&amp;rft.au=Aida%2C+Takuzo&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-pmid21570668-56">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b
><a href="#cite_ref-pmid21570668_56-0">^</a></b
></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
id="CITEREFBuCallaway2011"
class="citation book cs1"
>Bu Z, Callaway DJ (2011). "Proteins MOVE! Protein
dynamics and long-range allostery in cell
signaling". <i>Protein Structure and Diseases</i>.
Advances in Protein Chemistry and Structural
Biology. Vol.&#160;83. pp.&#160;<span
class="nowrap"
>163–</span
>221.
<a
href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Doi (identifier)"
>doi</a
>:<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-12-381262-9.00005-7"
>10.1016/B978-0-12-381262-9.00005-7</a
>.
<a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)"
>ISBN</a
>&#160;<a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780123812629"
title="Special:BookSources/9780123812629"
><bdi>9780123812629</bdi></a
>.
<a
href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="PMID (identifier)"
>PMID</a
>&#160;<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21570668"
>21570668</a
>.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Proteins+MOVE%21+Protein+dynamics+and+long-range+allostery+in+cell+signaling&amp;rft.btitle=Protein+Structure+and+Diseases&amp;rft.series=Advances+in+Protein+Chemistry+and+Structural+Biology&amp;rft.pages=163-221&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft&#95;id=info%3Apmid%2F21570668&amp;rft&#95;id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-12-381262-9.00005-7&amp;rft.isbn=9780123812629&amp;rft.aulast=Bu&amp;rft.aufirst=Z&amp;rft.au=Callaway%2C+DJ&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-57">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="http://www.pnas.org/content/112/3/713.abstract"
>Marras, A., Zhou, L., Su, H., and Castro, C.E.
Programmable motion of DNA origami mechanisms,
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,
2015</a
>
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170804052839/http://www.pnas.org/content/112/3/713.abstract"
>Archived</a
>
2017-08-04 at the
<a
href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine"
title="Wayback Machine"
>Wayback Machine</a
></span
>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-58">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="http://mechanicaldesign101.com/2014/10/21/haijun-su-draft-article/"
>McCarthy, C, DNA Origami Mechanisms and Machines
| Mechanical Design 101, 2014</a
>
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170918021917/http://mechanicaldesign101.com/2014/10/21/haijun-su-draft-article/"
>Archived</a
>
2017-09-18 at the
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href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine"
title="Wayback Machine"
>Wayback Machine</a
></span
>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-59">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
>Jerome (1934) gives the industry classification of
machine tools as being "other than hand power".
Beginning with the 1900 U.S. census, power use was
part of the definition of a factory, distinguishing
it from a workshop.</span
>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-60">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106" /><cite
class="citation web cs1"
><a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US40891"
>"U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, Patent#
40891, <i>Toy Automaton</i>"</a
>.
<a
href="/wiki/Google_Patents"
title="Google Patents"
>Google Patents</a
><span class="reference-accessdate"
>. Retrieved
<span class="nowrap">2007-01-07</span></span
>.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=U.S.+Patent+and+Trademark+Office%2C+Patent%23+40891%2C+Toy+Automaton&amp;rft.pub=Google+Patents&amp;rft&#95;id=https%3A%2F%2Fpatents.google.com%2Fpatent%2FUS40891&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span
></span>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-61">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
>A. P. Usher, 1929,
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xuDDqqa8FlwC&amp;q=history+of+mechanical+inventions"
><i>A History of Mechanical Inventions</i></a
>
<a
rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130602124007/http://books.google.com/books?id=xuDDqqa8FlwC&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=history+of+mechanical+inventions&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ei=n5r4Tov7HaqPsQLugvWuAQ&amp;ved=0CD8Q6AEwAA"
>Archived</a
>
2013-06-02 at the
<a
href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine"
title="Wayback Machine"
>Wayback Machine</a
>, Harvard University Press (reprinted by Dover
Publications 1968).</span
>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-62">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
>B. Paul, Kinematics and Dynamics of Planar
Machinery, Prentice-Hall, NJ, 1979</span
>
</li>
<li id="cite&#95;note-63">
<span class="mw-cite-backlink"
><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span
>
<span class="reference-text"
>L. W. Tsai, Robot Analysis: The mechanics of serial
and parallel manipulators, John-Wiley, NY,
1999.</span
>
</li>
</ol>
</div>
</div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2">
<h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>
</div>
<ul>
<li>
<link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106"
/><cite
id="CITEREFObergFranklin&#95;D.&#95;JonesHolbrook&#95;L.&#95;HortonHenry&#95;H.&#95;Ryffel2000"
class="citation book cs1"
>Oberg, Erik; Franklin D. Jones; Holbrook L. Horton;
Henry H. Ryffel (2000). Christopher J. McCauley;
Riccardo Heald; Muhammed Iqbal Hussain (eds.).
<a
href="/wiki/Machinery%27s_Handbook"
title="Machinery&#39;s Handbook"
><i>Machinery's Handbook</i></a
>
(26th&#160;ed.). New York: Industrial Press Inc.
<a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)"
>ISBN</a
>&#160;<a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8311-2635-3"
title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8311-2635-3"
><bdi>978-0-8311-2635-3</bdi></a
>.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Machinery%27s+Handbook&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.edition=26th&amp;rft.pub=Industrial+Press+Inc.&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8311-2635-3&amp;rft.aulast=Oberg&amp;rft.aufirst=Erik&amp;rft.au=Franklin+D.+Jones&amp;rft.au=Holbrook+L.+Horton&amp;rft.au=Henry+H.+Ryffel&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span>
</li>
<li>
<link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106"
/><cite id="CITEREFReuleaux1876" class="citation book cs1"
>Reuleaux, Franz (1876).
<i>The Kinematics of Machinery</i>. Trans. and annotated
by A. B. W. Kennedy. New York: reprinted by Dover
(1963).</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Kinematics+of+Machinery&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=reprinted+by+Dover+%281963%29&amp;rft.date=1876&amp;rft.aulast=Reuleaux&amp;rft.aufirst=Franz&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span>
</li>
<li>
<link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106"
/><cite
id="CITEREFUickerG.&#95;R.&#95;PennockJ.&#95;E.&#95;Shigley2003"
class="citation book cs1"
>Uicker, J. J.; G. R. Pennock; J. E. Shigley (2003).
<i>Theory of Machines and Mechanisms</i>. New York:
Oxford University Press.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Theory+of+Machines+and+Mechanisms&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.aulast=Uicker&amp;rft.aufirst=J.+J.&amp;rft.au=G.+R.+Pennock&amp;rft.au=J.+E.+Shigley&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span>
</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>
<link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106"
/><cite
id="CITEREFObergFranklin&#95;D.&#95;JonesHolbrook&#95;L.&#95;HortonHenry&#95;H.&#95;Ryffel2000"
class="citation book cs1"
>Oberg, Erik; Franklin D. Jones; Holbrook L. Horton;
Henry H. Ryffel (2000). Christopher J. McCauley;
Riccardo Heald; Muhammed Iqbal Hussain (eds.).
<i>Machinery's Handbook</i> (30th&#160;ed.). New York:
Industrial Press Inc.
<a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)"
>ISBN</a
>&#160;<a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780831130992"
title="Special:BookSources/9780831130992"
><bdi>9780831130992</bdi></a
>.</cite
><span
title="ctx&#95;ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft&#95;val&#95;fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Machinery%27s+Handbook&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.edition=30th&amp;rft.pub=Industrial+Press+Inc.&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.isbn=9780831130992&amp;rft.aulast=Oberg&amp;rft.aufirst=Erik&amp;rft.au=Franklin+D.+Jones&amp;rft.au=Holbrook+L.+Horton&amp;rft.au=Henry+H.+Ryffel&amp;rfr&#95;id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMachine"
class="Z3988"
></span>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2">
<h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>
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<ul>
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<li>
<a
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href="https://kmoddl.library.cornell.edu/model.php?m=reuleaux"
>Reuleaux Collection of Mechanisms and Machines</a
>
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<table
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<div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view">
<a
href="/wiki/Template:Industrial_Revolution"
title="Template:Industrial Revolution"
><abbr title="View this template"
>v</abbr
></a
>
</li>
<li class="nv-talk">
<a
href="/wiki/Template_talk:Industrial_Revolution"
title="Template talk:Industrial Revolution"
><abbr title="Discuss this template"
>t</abbr
></a
>
</li>
<li class="nv-edit">
<a
href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Industrial_Revolution"
title="Special:EditPage/Template:Industrial Revolution"
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>e</abbr
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>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div
id="Industrial&#95;and&#95;technological&#95;revolution4184"
style="font-size: 114%; margin: 0 4em"
>
<a
href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution"
title="Industrial Revolution"
>Industrial</a
>
and
<a
href="/wiki/Technological_revolution"
title="Technological revolution"
>technological</a
>
revolution
</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3">
<div>
<ul>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><b
><a
href="/wiki/Proto-industrialization"
title="Proto-industrialization"
>Proto</a
></b
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><b
><a
href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution"
title="Industrial Revolution"
>First</a
></b
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><b
><a
href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution"
title="Second Industrial Revolution"
>Second</a
></b
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><b
><a
href="/wiki/Digital_Revolution"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Digital Revolution"
>Third</a
></b
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><b
><a
href="/wiki/Fourth_Industrial_Revolution"
title="Fourth Industrial Revolution"
>Fourth</a
></b
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><b
><a
href="/wiki/Technological_revolution#Potential_future_technological_revolutions"
title="Technological revolution"
>Potential future</a
></b
></span
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
Themes
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal"
>Coal</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Coal_mining"
title="Coal mining"
>Coal&#160;mining</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)"
title="Coke (fuel)"
>Coke</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton"
>Cotton</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Industry_(manufacturing)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Industry (manufacturing)"
>Industry/Manufacturing</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a href="/wiki/Invention" title="Invention"
>Invention</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron"
>Iron</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a class="mw-selflink selflink"
>Machinery</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Metallurgy"
title="Metallurgy"
>Metallurgy</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology"
>Sociology</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Steam_engine"
title="Steam engine"
>Steam power</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel"
>Steel</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Technology"
title="Technology"
>Technology</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a href="/wiki/Textile" title="Textile"
>Textiles</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Hydropower"
title="Hydropower"
>Water power</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a href="/wiki/Workforce" title="Workforce"
>Workforce</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Economies_of_agglomeration"
title="Economies of agglomeration"
>Economies of agglomeration</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Economies_of_density"
title="Economies of density"
>Economies of density</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Economies_of_scale"
title="Economies of scale"
>Economies of scale</a
></span
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
<td
class="noviewer navbox-image"
rowspan="6"
style="width: 1px; padding: 0 0 0 2px"
>
<div>
<span typeof="mw:File"
><a
href="/wiki/File:Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg"
class="mw-file-description"
><img
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/120px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg"
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width="100"
height="74"
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data-file-width="1024"
data-file-height="760" /></a
></span>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
People/<br />groups
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Richard_Arkwright"
title="Richard Arkwright"
>Richard Arkwright</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Thomas_Boulsover"
title="Thomas Boulsover"
>Thomas Boulsover</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Matthew_Boulton"
title="Matthew Boulton"
>Matthew Boulton</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/James_Brindley"
title="James Brindley"
>James Brindley</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Isambard_Kingdom_Brunel"
title="Isambard Kingdom Brunel"
>Isambard Kingdom Brunel</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Edmund_Cartwright"
title="Edmund Cartwright"
>Edmund Cartwright</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Henry_Cort_(Template)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Henry Cort (Template)"
>Henry Cort</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Cranege_brothers"
title="Cranege brothers"
>Thomas and George Cranege</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Samuel_Crompton"
title="Samuel Crompton"
>Samuel Crompton</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Abraham_Darby_I"
title="Abraham Darby I"
>Abraham Darby I</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Abraham_Darby_II"
title="Abraham Darby II"
>Abraham Darby II</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Abraham_Darby_III"
title="Abraham Darby III"
>Abraham Darby III</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Francis_Egerton,_3rd_Duke_of_Bridgewater"
title="Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater"
>Francis Egerton</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/William_Fairbairn"
title="William Fairbairn"
>William Fairbairn</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Joseph_Gillott"
title="Joseph Gillott"
>Joseph Gillott</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/James_Hargreaves"
title="James Hargreaves"
>James Hargreaves</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Hawks_family"
title="Hawks family"
>Hawks family</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Thomas_Highs"
title="Thomas Highs"
>Thomas Highs</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Eaton_Hodgkinson"
title="Eaton Hodgkinson"
>Eaton Hodgkinson</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Benjamin_Huntsman"
title="Benjamin Huntsman"
>Benjamin Huntsman</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Joseph_Marie_Jacquard"
title="Joseph Marie Jacquard"
>Joseph Marie Jacquard</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/John_Kay_(flying_shuttle)"
title="John Kay (flying shuttle)"
>John Kay (flying shuttle)</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/John_Kay_(spinning_frame)"
title="John Kay (spinning frame)"
>John Kay (spinning frame)</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Francis_Cabot_Lowell_(businessman)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Francis Cabot Lowell (businessman)"
>Francis Lowell</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Lunar_Society"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Lunar Society"
>Lunar Society</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Josiah_Mason"
title="Josiah Mason"
>Josiah Mason</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Thomas_Newcomen"
title="Thomas Newcomen"
>Thomas Newcomen</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Robert_Owen"
title="Robert Owen"
>Robert Owen</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Lewis_Paul"
title="Lewis Paul"
>Lewis Paul</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/William_Radcliffe"
title="William Radcliffe"
>William Radcliffe</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Richard_Roberts_(engineer)"
title="Richard Roberts (engineer)"
>Richard Roberts</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Thomas_Savery"
title="Thomas Savery"
>Thomas Savery</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Samuel_Slater"
title="Samuel Slater"
>Samuel Slater</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/John_Smeaton"
title="John Smeaton"
>John Smeaton</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/George_Stephenson"
title="George Stephenson"
>George Stephenson</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Robert_Stephenson"
title="Robert Stephenson"
>Robert Stephenson</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Thomas_Telford"
title="Thomas Telford"
>Thomas Telford</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Richard_Trevithick"
title="Richard Trevithick"
>Richard Trevithick</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/James_Watt"
title="James Watt"
>James Watt</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/John_Wilkinson_(industrialist)"
title="John Wilkinson (industrialist)"
>John Wilkinson</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/John_Wyatt_(inventor)"
title="John Wyatt (inventor)"
>John Wyatt</a
></span
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
Places
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Abbeydale_Industrial_Hamlet"
title="Abbeydale Industrial Hamlet"
>Abbeydale&#160;Industrial&#160;Hamlet</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Allentown,_Pennsylvania"
title="Allentown, Pennsylvania"
>Allentown</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Bethlehem,_Pennsylvania"
title="Bethlehem, Pennsylvania"
>Bethlehem</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Birmingham"
title="Birmingham"
>Birmingham</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Bridgewater_Canal"
title="Bridgewater Canal"
>Bridgewater&#160;Canal</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a href="/wiki/Broseley" title="Broseley"
>Broseley</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Coalbrookdale"
title="Coalbrookdale"
>Coalbrookdale</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a href="/wiki/Cromford" title="Cromford"
>Cromford</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Derwent_Valley_Mills"
title="Derwent Valley Mills"
>Derwent&#160;Valley&#160;Mills</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Ironbridge"
title="Ironbridge"
>Ironbridge</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/New_Lanark"
title="New Lanark"
>New&#160;Lanark</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Portsmouth_Block_Mills"
title="Portsmouth Block Mills"
>Portsmouth&#160;Block&#160;Mills</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Quarry_Bank_Mill"
title="Quarry Bank Mill"
>Quarry&#160;Bank&#160;Mill</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Soho_Foundry"
title="Soho Foundry"
>Soho&#160;Foundry</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Stockton_and_Darlington_Railway"
title="Stockton and Darlington Railway"
>Stockton and Darlington Railway</a
></span
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
Invention/<br />technology
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Blast_furnace"
title="Blast furnace"
>Blast&#160;furnace</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal"
>Canal</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Cotton_mill"
title="Cotton mill"
>Cotton&#160;mill</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Crucible_steel"
title="Crucible steel"
>Crucible&#160;steel</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a href="/wiki/Factory" title="Factory"
>Factory</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Flying_shuttle"
title="Flying shuttle"
>Flying&#160;shuttle</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Newcomen_steam_engine"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Newcomen steam engine"
>Newcomen&#160;steam&#160;engine</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Power_loom"
title="Power loom"
>Power&#160;loom</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Rail_transport"
title="Rail transport"
>Railway</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Reverberatory_furnace"
title="Reverberatory furnace"
>Reverberatory&#160;furnace</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Sheffield_plate"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Sheffield plate"
>Sheffield&#160;plate</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Spinning_frame"
title="Spinning frame"
>Spinning&#160;frame</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Spinning_jenny"
title="Spinning jenny"
>Spinning&#160;jenny</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Steam_engine"
title="Steam engine"
>Steam&#160;engine</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Stephenson%27s_Rocket"
title="Stephenson&#39;s Rocket"
>Stephenson's&#160;Rocket</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Water_frame"
title="Water frame"
>Water&#160;frame</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Watt_steam_engine"
title="Watt steam engine"
>Watt&#160;steam&#160;engine</a
></span
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
Social impact
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Birmingham_pen_trade"
title="Birmingham pen trade"
>Birmingham pen trade</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie"
title="Bourgeoisie"
>Bourgeoisie</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Child_labour"
title="Child labour"
>Child labour</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Cottage_industry"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Cottage industry"
>Cottage industry</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Democracy_and_economic_growth"
title="Democracy and economic growth"
>Democracy and economic growth</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Factory_Acts"
title="Factory Acts"
>Factory Acts</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Great_Divergence"
title="Great Divergence"
>Great Divergence</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/History_of_the_cooperative_movement"
title="History of the cooperative movement"
>History of the cooperative movement</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Industrial_unrest"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Industrial unrest"
>Industrial unrest</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Industrial_warfare"
title="Industrial warfare"
>Industrial warfare</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a href="/wiki/Luddite" title="Luddite"
>Luddite</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Proletariat"
title="Proletariat"
>Proletariat</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Rochdale_Pioneers"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Rochdale Pioneers"
>Rochdale Pioneers</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Urbanization"
title="Urbanization"
>Urbanization</a
></span
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
Reference
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/History_of_technology"
title="History of technology"
>History of technology</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_canal_system"
title="History of the British canal system"
>History of the British canal system</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Industrial_archaeology"
title="Industrial archaeology"
>Industrial archaeology</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/List_of_United_Kingdom-related_topics"
class="mw-redirect"
title="List of United Kingdom-related topics"
>List of United Kingdom-related topics</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Timeline_of_clothing_and_textiles_technology"
title="Timeline of clothing and textiles technology"
>Timeline of clothing and textiles
technology</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Timeline_of_historic_inventions"
title="Timeline of historic inventions"
>Timeline of historic inventions</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Timeline_of_materials_technology"
title="Timeline of materials technology"
>Timeline of materials technology</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><a
href="/wiki/Timeline_of_steam_power"
title="Timeline of steam power"
>Timeline of steam power</a
></span
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3">
<div>
<ul>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"
><span title="Category"
><img
alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/20px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png"
decoding="async"
width="16"
height="16"
class="mw-file-element"
srcset="
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"
data-file-width="180"
data-file-height="185" /></span
></span>
<a
href="/wiki/Category:Industrial_Revolution"
title="Category:Industrial Revolution"
>Category</a
></span
>
</li>
<li>
<span class="nowrap"
><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"
><a
href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg"
class="mw-file-description"
title="Commons page"
><img
alt=""
src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png"
decoding="async"
width="12"
height="16"
class="mw-file-element"
srcset="
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x
"
data-file-width="1024"
data-file-height="1376" /></a
></span>
<a
href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Industrial_revolution"
class="extiw"
title="commons:Category:Industrial revolution"
>Commons</a
></span
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</div>
<div class="navbox-styles">
<link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333133064"
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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
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</div>
<div
role="navigation"
class="navbox"
aria-labelledby="Machines1479"
style="padding: 3px"
>
<table
class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner"
style="
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background: transparent;
color: inherit;
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<tbody>
<tr>
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<link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
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</li>
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style="font-size: 114%; margin: 0 4em"
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<a class="mw-selflink selflink">Machines</a>
</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
<a
href="/wiki/Simple_machine"
title="Simple machine"
>Classical simple machines</a
>
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Inclined_plane"
title="Inclined plane"
>Inclined plane</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a href="/wiki/Lever" title="Lever">Lever</a>
</li>
<li>
<a href="/wiki/Pulley" title="Pulley"
>Pulley</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Screw_(simple_machine)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Screw (simple machine)"
>Screw</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Wedge_(mechanical_device)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Wedge (mechanical device)"
>Wedge</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Wheel_and_axle"
title="Wheel and axle"
>Wheel and axle</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
<a href="/wiki/Clock" title="Clock">Clocks</a>
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Atomic_clock"
title="Atomic clock"
>Atomic clock</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Marine_chronometer"
title="Marine chronometer"
>Chronometer</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Pendulum_clock"
title="Pendulum clock"
>Pendulum clock</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Quartz_clock"
title="Quartz clock"
>Quartz clock</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
<a
href="/wiki/Gas_compressor"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Gas compressor"
>Compressors</a
>
and <a href="/wiki/Pump" title="Pump">pumps</a>
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Archimedes%27_screw"
title="Archimedes&#39; screw"
>Archimedes' screw</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a href="/wiki/Injector" title="Injector"
>Eductor-jet pump</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Hydraulic_ram"
title="Hydraulic ram"
>Hydraulic ram</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a href="/wiki/Pump" title="Pump">Pump</a>
</li>
<li>
<a href="/wiki/Trompe" title="Trompe"
>Trompe</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Vacuum_pump"
title="Vacuum pump"
>Vacuum pump</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
<a
href="/wiki/External_combustion_engine"
title="External combustion engine"
>External combustion engines</a
>
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Steam_engine"
title="Steam engine"
>Steam engine</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Stirling_engine"
title="Stirling engine"
>Stirling engine</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
<a
href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine"
title="Internal combustion engine"
>Internal combustion engines</a
>
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Gas_turbine"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Gas turbine"
>Gas turbine</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Reciprocating_engine"
title="Reciprocating engine"
>Reciprocating engine</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Rotary_engine"
title="Rotary engine"
>Rotary engine</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Nutating_disc_engine"
title="Nutating disc engine"
>Nutating disc engine</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
<a
href="/wiki/Linkage_(mechanical)"
title="Linkage (mechanical)"
>Linkages</a
>
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a href="/wiki/Pantograph" title="Pantograph"
>Pantograph</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Peaucellier%E2%80%93Lipkin_linkage"
title="Peaucellier–Lipkin linkage"
>Peaucellier-Lipkin</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
<a href="/wiki/Turbine" title="Turbine">Turbine</a>
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Gas_turbine"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Gas turbine"
>Gas turbine</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a href="/wiki/Jet_engine" title="Jet engine"
>Jet engine</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Steam_turbine"
title="Steam turbine"
>Steam turbine</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Water_turbine"
title="Water turbine"
>Water turbine</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Wind_generator"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Wind generator"
>Wind generator</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a href="/wiki/Windmill" title="Windmill"
>Windmill</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
<a href="/wiki/Airfoil" title="Airfoil">Aerofoil</a>
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a href="/wiki/Sail" title="Sail">Sail</a>
</li>
<li>
<a href="/wiki/Wing" title="Wing">Wing</a>
</li>
<li>
<a href="/wiki/Rudder" title="Rudder"
>Rudder</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Flap_(aircraft)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Flap (aircraft)"
>Flap</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Propeller_(aircraft)"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Propeller (aircraft)"
>Propeller</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
<a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics"
>Electronics</a
>
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube"
title="Vacuum tube"
>Vacuum tube</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor"
>Transistor</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">Diode</a>
</li>
<li>
<a href="/wiki/Resistor" title="Resistor"
>Resistor</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor"
>Capacitor</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a href="/wiki/Inductor" title="Inductor"
>Inductor</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
<a href="/wiki/Vehicle" title="Vehicle">Vehicles</a>
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Automobile"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Automobile"
>Automobile</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
Miscellaneous
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a href="/wiki/Mecha" title="Mecha">Mecha</a>
</li>
<li>
<a href="/wiki/Robot" title="Robot">Robot</a>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/List_of_agricultural_machinery"
title="List of agricultural machinery"
>Agricultural</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Seed-counting_machine"
title="Seed-counting machine"
>Seed-counting machine</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Vending_machine"
title="Vending machine"
>Vending machine</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Wind_tunnel"
title="Wind tunnel"
>Wind tunnel</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Check_weigher"
title="Check weigher"
>Check weighing machines</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Riveting_machines"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Riveting machines"
>Riveting machines</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
Springs
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Spring_(device)"
title="Spring (device)"
>Spring (device)</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333133064"
/><link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"
href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"
/>
<div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view">
<a
href="/wiki/Template:Technology_topics"
title="Template:Technology topics"
><abbr title="View this template"
>v</abbr
></a
>
</li>
<li class="nv-talk">
<a
href="/wiki/Template_talk:Technology_topics"
title="Template talk:Technology topics"
><abbr title="Discuss this template"
>t</abbr
></a
>
</li>
<li class="nv-edit">
<a
href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Technology_topics"
title="Special:EditPage/Template:Technology topics"
><abbr title="Edit this template"
>e</abbr
></a
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div
id="Technology&#95;and&#95;related&#95;concepts14001"
style="font-size: 114%; margin: 0 4em"
>
<a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology"
>Technology</a
>
and related concepts
</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td
colspan="2"
class="navbox-list navbox-odd"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em"></div>
<table
class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup"
style="border-spacing: 0"
>
<tbody>
<tr>
<th
scope="col"
class="navbox-title"
colspan="2"
>
<div
id="Major&#95;technologies9215"
style="font-size: 114%; margin: 0 4em"
>
Major technologies
</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td
colspan="2"
class="navbox-list navbox-odd"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em"></div>
<table
class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup"
style="border-spacing: 0"
>
<tbody>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
Necessities
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Agriculture"
title="Agriculture"
>Agriculture</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Domestication"
title="Domestication"
>Domestication</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Grafting"
title="Grafting"
>Grafting</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Working_animal"
title="Working animal"
>Working animal</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Clothing"
title="Clothing"
>Clothing</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Sewing_machine"
title="Sewing machine"
>Sewing machine</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Cooking"
title="Cooking"
>Cooking</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Beer"
title="Beer"
>Beer</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Bread"
title="Bread"
>Bread</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Cheese"
title="Cheese"
>Cheese</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Mill_(grinding)"
title="Mill (grinding)"
>Milling</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Wine"
title="Wine"
>Wine</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Food_storage"
title="Food storage"
>Food storage</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Pottery"
title="Pottery"
>Pottery</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Sanitation"
title="Sanitation"
>Sanitation</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Plumbing"
title="Plumbing"
>Plumbing</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Toilet"
title="Toilet"
>Toilet</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Tool"
title="Tool"
>Tool</a
>
/
<a
href="/wiki/Equipment"
title="Equipment"
>Equipment</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Blade"
title="Blade"
>Blade</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Hammer"
title="Hammer"
>Hammer</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Plough"
title="Plough"
>Plough</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Wedge"
title="Wedge"
>Wedge</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Weapon"
title="Weapon"
>Weapon</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Gun"
title="Gun"
>Gun</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
Social
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Accounting"
title="Accounting"
>Accounting</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Calculation"
title="Calculation"
>Calculation</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Abacus"
title="Abacus"
>Abacus</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Calendar"
title="Calendar"
>Calendar</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Cryptography"
title="Cryptography"
>Cryptography</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Lock_and_key"
title="Lock and key"
>Lock and key</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Money"
title="Money"
>Money</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Banknote"
title="Banknote"
>Banknote</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Coin"
title="Coin"
>Coin</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Musical_instrument"
title="Musical instrument"
>Musical instrument</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Phonograph"
title="Phonograph"
>Phonograph</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Toy"
title="Toy"
>Toy</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Game"
title="Game"
>Game</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Video_game"
title="Video game"
>Video game</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Writing"
title="Writing"
>Writing</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Book"
title="Book"
>Book</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Map"
title="Map"
>Map</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Printing_press"
title="Printing press"
>Printing press</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Typewriter"
title="Typewriter"
>Typewriter</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
<a
href="/wiki/Construction"
title="Construction"
>Construction</a
>
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Aqueduct_(water_supply)"
title="Aqueduct (water supply)"
>Aqueduct</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Canal"
title="Canal"
>Canal</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Irrigation"
title="Irrigation"
>Irrigation</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Arch"
title="Arch"
>Arch</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Bridge"
title="Bridge"
>Bridge</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Building"
title="Building"
>Building</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Fortification"
title="Fortification"
>Fortification</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Foundation_(engineering)"
title="Foundation (engineering)"
>Foundation</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Scaffolding"
title="Scaffolding"
>Scaffolding</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Tower"
title="Tower"
>Tower</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Dam"
title="Dam"
>Dam</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Caisson_(engineering)"
title="Caisson (engineering)"
>Caisson</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Stonemasonry"
title="Stonemasonry"
>Stonemasonry</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Road"
title="Road"
>Road</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Tunnel"
title="Tunnel"
>Tunnel</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
<a
href="/wiki/Transport"
title="Transport"
>Transport</a
>
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Aircraft"
title="Aircraft"
>Aircraft</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Aerostat"
title="Aerostat"
>Aerostat</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Airplane"
title="Airplane"
>Airplane</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Seaplane"
title="Seaplane"
>Seaplane</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Compass"
title="Compass"
>Compass</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Elevator"
title="Elevator"
>Elevator</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Horseback_riding"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Horseback riding"
>Horseback riding</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Stirrup"
title="Stirrup"
>Stirrup</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Jet_engine"
title="Jet engine"
>Jet engine</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Rocket"
title="Rocket"
>Rocket</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Motor_vehicle"
title="Motor vehicle"
>Motor vehicle</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Railroad"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Railroad"
>Railroad</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Train"
title="Train"
>Train</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Scuba_set"
title="Scuba set"
>Scuba set</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Spacecraft"
title="Spacecraft"
>Spacecraft</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Satellite"
title="Satellite"
>Satellite</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Space_station"
title="Space station"
>Space station</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Space_suit"
title="Space suit"
>Space suit</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Watercraft"
title="Watercraft"
>Watercraft</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Sailing"
title="Sailing"
>Sailing</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Ship"
title="Ship"
>Ship</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Submarine"
title="Submarine"
>Submarine</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
<a
href="/wiki/Manufacturing"
title="Manufacturing"
>Manufacturing</a
>
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/3D_printing"
title="3D printing"
>3D printing</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Carpentry"
title="Carpentry"
>Carpentry</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Casting"
title="Casting"
>Casting</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Injection_moulding"
title="Injection moulding"
>Injection moulding</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Lost-wax_casting"
title="Lost-wax casting"
>Lost-wax casting</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Mass_production"
title="Mass production"
>Mass production</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Assembly_line"
title="Assembly line"
>Assembly line</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Interchangeable_parts"
title="Interchangeable parts"
>Interchangeable
parts</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Machine_tool"
title="Machine tool"
>Machine tool</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Welding"
title="Welding"
>Welding</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
<a
href="/wiki/Simple_machine"
title="Simple machine"
>Simple machine</a
>
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Axle"
title="Axle"
>Axle</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Bearing_(mechanical)"
title="Bearing (mechanical)"
>Bearing</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Ball_bearing"
title="Ball bearing"
>Ball bearing</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Belt_(mechanical)"
title="Belt (mechanical)"
>Belt</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Chain"
title="Chain"
>Chain</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Lever"
title="Lever"
>Lever</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Catapult"
title="Catapult"
>Catapult</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Crane_(machine)"
title="Crane (machine)"
>Crane</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Shadoof"
title="Shadoof"
>Shadoof</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Linkage_(mechanical)"
title="Linkage (mechanical)"
>Linkage</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Cam_(mechanism)"
title="Cam (mechanism)"
>Cam</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Clutch"
title="Clutch"
>Clutch</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Four-bar_linkage"
title="Four-bar linkage"
>Four-bar linkage</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Piston"
title="Piston"
>Piston</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Rack_and_pinion"
title="Rack and pinion"
>Rack and pinion</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Pendulum"
title="Pendulum"
>Pendulum</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Screw"
title="Screw"
>Screw</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Archimedes%27_screw"
title="Archimedes&#39; screw"
>Archimedes' screw</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Propeller"
title="Propeller"
>Propeller</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Spring_(device)"
title="Spring (device)"
>Spring</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Valve"
title="Valve"
>Valve</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Wheel"
title="Wheel"
>Wheel</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Block_and_tackle"
title="Block and tackle"
>Block and tackle</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Flywheel"
title="Flywheel"
>Flywheel</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Gear"
title="Gear"
>Gear</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Potter%27s_wheel"
title="Potter&#39;s wheel"
>Potter's wheel</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Pulley"
title="Pulley"
>Pulley</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Wing"
title="Wing"
>Wing</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
<a
href="/wiki/Machinery"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Machinery"
>Machinery</a
>
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Agricultural_machinery"
title="Agricultural machinery"
>Agricultural machinery</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Home_appliance"
title="Home appliance"
>Appliance</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Dishwasher"
title="Dishwasher"
>Dishwasher</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Washing_machine"
title="Washing machine"
>Washing machine</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Engine"
title="Engine"
>Engine</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Electric_motor"
title="Electric motor"
>Electric motor</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Internal_combustion"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Internal combustion"
>Internal combustion</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Turbine"
title="Turbine"
>Turbine</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Waterwheel"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Waterwheel"
>Waterwheel</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Windmill"
title="Windmill"
>Windmill</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Heavy_equipment"
title="Heavy equipment"
>Heavy equipment</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Hydraulic_machinery"
title="Hydraulic machinery"
>Hydraulics</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Hydraulic_cylinder"
title="Hydraulic cylinder"
>Cylinder</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Hydraulic_manifold"
title="Hydraulic manifold"
>Manifold</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Pump"
title="Pump"
>Pump</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Mechanism_(engineering)"
title="Mechanism (engineering)"
>Mechanism</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Clock"
title="Clock"
>Clock</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Differential_(mechanical_device)"
title="Differential (mechanical device)"
>Differential</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Epicyclic_gearing"
title="Epicyclic gearing"
>Epicyclic gearing</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Gimbal"
title="Gimbal"
>Gimbal</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Gyroscope"
title="Gyroscope"
>Gyroscope</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Whippletree_(mechanism)"
title="Whippletree (mechanism)"
>Whippletree</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/MEMS"
title="MEMS"
>MEMS</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Pneumatics"
title="Pneumatics"
>Pneumatics</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Compressor"
title="Compressor"
>Compressor</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Jackhammer"
title="Jackhammer"
>Jackhammer</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Rivet_gun"
title="Rivet gun"
>Rivet gun</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Vacuum_pump"
title="Vacuum pump"
>Vacuum pump</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Robotics"
title="Robotics"
>Robotics</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Robotic_arm"
title="Robotic arm"
>Arm</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Leg_mechanism"
title="Leg mechanism"
>Leg</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
<a
href="/wiki/Energy_development"
title="Energy development"
>Energy</a
>
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Control_of_fire"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Control of fire"
>Fire</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Charcoal_burner"
title="Charcoal burner"
>Charcoal</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Oven"
title="Oven"
>Oven</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Energy_storage"
title="Energy storage"
>Energy storage</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Electric_battery"
title="Electric battery"
>Battery</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Geothermal_power"
title="Geothermal power"
>Geothermal power</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Heat_exchanger"
title="Heat exchanger"
>Heat exchanger</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Heat_pump"
title="Heat pump"
>Heat pump</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology"
title="Nuclear technology"
>Nuclear</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Nuclear_power"
title="Nuclear power"
>Power</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon"
title="Nuclear weapon"
>Weapon</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Oil_drilling"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Oil drilling"
>Oil drilling</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Fracking"
title="Fracking"
>Fracking</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Refrigeration"
title="Refrigeration"
>Refrigeration</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Air_conditioning"
title="Air conditioning"
>Air conditioning</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Refrigerator"
title="Refrigerator"
>Refrigerator</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Solar_power"
title="Solar power"
>Solar power</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Photovoltaics"
title="Photovoltaics"
>Photovoltaics</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
<a
href="/wiki/Material"
title="Material"
>Material</a
>
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Cement"
title="Cement"
>Cement</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Concrete"
title="Concrete"
>Concrete</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Ceramic"
title="Ceramic"
>Ceramic</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Brick"
title="Brick"
>Brick</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Chipped_stone"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Chipped stone"
>Chipped stone</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Glass"
title="Glass"
>Glass</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Masonry"
title="Masonry"
>Masonry</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Metallurgy"
title="Metallurgy"
>Metallurgy</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Hall%E2%80%93H%C3%A9roult_process"
title="Hall–Héroult process"
>Aluminum</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Bronze"
title="Bronze"
>Bronze</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Ironworking"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Ironworking"
>Ironworking</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Steel"
title="Steel"
>Steel</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Nanomaterials"
title="Nanomaterials"
>Nanomaterials</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Paper"
title="Paper"
>Paper</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Plastic"
title="Plastic"
>Plastic</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Rammed_earth"
title="Rammed earth"
>Rammed earth</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Recycling"
title="Recycling"
>Recycling</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Natural_rubber"
title="Natural rubber"
>Rubber</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Vulcanization"
title="Vulcanization"
>Vulcanization</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Textile"
title="Textile"
>Textile</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Loom"
title="Loom"
>Loom</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Spinning_wheel"
title="Spinning wheel"
>Spinning wheel</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
<a
href="/wiki/Biotechnology"
title="Biotechnology"
>Biotechnology</a
>
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Birth_control"
title="Birth control"
>Birth control</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Blood_transfusion"
title="Blood transfusion"
>Blood transfusion</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Dentistry"
title="Dentistry"
>Dentistry</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering"
title="Genetic engineering"
>Genetic engineering</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/CRISPR_gene_editing"
title="CRISPR gene editing"
>CRISPR gene editing</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Genetic_testing"
title="Genetic testing"
>Genetic testing</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction"
title="Polymerase chain reaction"
>PCR</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Hospital"
title="Hospital"
>Hospital</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Medical_imaging"
title="Medical imaging"
>Medical imaging</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Medication"
title="Medication"
>Medication</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Anesthesia"
title="Anesthesia"
>Anesthesia</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Antibiotic"
title="Antibiotic"
>Antibiotic</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Prosthesis"
title="Prosthesis"
>Prosthesis</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Surgery"
title="Surgery"
>Surgery</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Vaccine"
title="Vaccine"
>Vaccine</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
<a
href="/wiki/Chemical"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Chemical"
>Chemical</a
>
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Cosmetics"
title="Cosmetics"
>Cosmetics</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Detergent"
title="Detergent"
>Detergent</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Soap"
title="Soap"
>Soap</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Dye"
title="Dye"
>Dye</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Explosive"
title="Explosive"
>Explosive</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Dynamite"
title="Dynamite"
>Dynamite</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Fireworks"
title="Fireworks"
>Fireworks</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Gunpowder"
title="Gunpowder"
>Gunpowder</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/TNT"
title="TNT"
>TNT</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Fertilizer"
title="Fertilizer"
>Fertilizer</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Haber_process"
title="Haber process"
>Haber process</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Laboratory_glassware"
title="Laboratory glassware"
>Laboratory glassware</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Pesticide"
title="Pesticide"
>Pesticide</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Pigment"
title="Pigment"
>Pigment</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Separation_process"
title="Separation process"
>Separation</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Chromatography"
title="Chromatography"
>Chromatography</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Distillation"
title="Distillation"
>Distillation</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Filtration"
title="Filtration"
>Filtration</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Spectrometer"
title="Spectrometer"
>Spectrometer</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis"
title="Chemical synthesis"
>Synthesis</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
<a
href="/wiki/Electromagnetism"
title="Electromagnetism"
>Electromagnetism</a
>
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Display_device"
title="Display device"
>Display device</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Electromagnet"
title="Electromagnet"
>Electromagnet</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Laser"
title="Laser"
>Laser</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Optical_disc"
title="Optical disc"
>Optical disc</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Lens"
title="Lens"
>Lens</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Eyeglasses"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Eyeglasses"
>Eyeglasses</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Magnetic_storage"
title="Magnetic storage"
>Magnetic storage</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Microwave_oven"
title="Microwave oven"
>Microwave oven</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Mirror"
title="Mirror"
>Mirror</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Optical_fiber"
title="Optical fiber"
>Optical fiber</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Optical_instrument"
title="Optical instrument"
>Optical instrument</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Microscope"
title="Microscope"
>Microscope</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Telescope"
title="Telescope"
>Telescope</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator"
title="Particle accelerator"
>Particle accelerator</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Photography"
title="Photography"
>Photography</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Camera"
title="Camera"
>Camera</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Film"
title="Film"
>Motion picture</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Radar"
title="Radar"
>Radar</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Telecommunications"
title="Telecommunications"
>Telecommunications</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Mobile_phone"
title="Mobile phone"
>Mobile phone</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Radio"
title="Radio"
>Radio</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Telegraph"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Telegraph"
>Telegraph</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Telephone"
title="Telephone"
>Telephone</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Television"
title="Television"
>Television</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
<a
href="/wiki/Electricity"
title="Electricity"
>Electricity</a
>
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Electrical_network"
title="Electrical network"
>Circuit</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Alternating_current"
title="Alternating current"
>AC</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Circuit_breaker"
title="Circuit breaker"
>Circuit breaker</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Direct_current"
title="Direct current"
>DC</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Electrical_grid"
title="Electrical grid"
>Electrical grid</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Fuse_(electrical)"
title="Fuse (electrical)"
>Fuse</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Electric_generator"
title="Electric generator"
>Generator</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Switch"
title="Switch"
>Switch</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Transformer"
title="Transformer"
>Transformer</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Electric_light"
title="Electric light"
>Electric light</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Fluorescent_lamp"
title="Fluorescent lamp"
>Fluorescent</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Incandescent_light_bulb"
title="Incandescent light bulb"
>Incandescent</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/LED"
class="mw-redirect"
title="LED"
>LED</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Neon_lighting"
title="Neon lighting"
>Neon</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Electronics"
title="Electronics"
>Electronics</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Capacitor"
title="Capacitor"
>Capacitor</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Circuit_board"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Circuit board"
>Circuit board</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Resistor"
title="Resistor"
>Resistor</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Inductor"
title="Inductor"
>Inductor</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube"
title="Vacuum tube"
>Vacuum tube</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Lightning_rod"
title="Lightning rod"
>Lightning rod</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Multimeter"
title="Multimeter"
>Multimeter</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Oscilloscope"
title="Oscilloscope"
>Oscilloscope</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Semiconductor"
title="Semiconductor"
>Semiconductor</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Diode"
title="Diode"
>Diode</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit"
title="Integrated circuit"
>Integrated circuit</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Transistor"
title="Transistor"
>Transistor</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Superconductor"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Superconductor"
>Superconductor</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
<a
href="/wiki/Computer"
title="Computer"
>Computer</a
>
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence"
title="Artificial intelligence"
>Artificial intelligence</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Computer_hardware"
title="Computer hardware"
>Hardware</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/CPU"
class="mw-redirect"
title="CPU"
>CPU</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/GPU"
class="mw-redirect"
title="GPU"
>GPU</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Modem"
title="Modem"
>Modem</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Motherboard"
title="Motherboard"
>Motherboard</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Computer_mouse"
title="Computer mouse"
>Mouse</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/RAM"
class="mw-redirect"
title="RAM"
>RAM</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Router_(computing)"
title="Router (computing)"
>Router</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage"
title="Computer data storage"
>Storage</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Touchscreen"
title="Touchscreen"
>Touchscreen</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Computer_network"
title="Computer network"
>Networking</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Client%E2%80%93server_model"
title="Client–server model"
>Client–server model</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Email"
title="Email"
>Email</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Internet"
title="Internet"
>Internet</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Peer-to-peer"
title="Peer-to-peer"
>Peer-to-peer</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Social_media"
title="Social media"
>Social media</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web"
title="World Wide Web"
>World Wide Web</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Programming_language"
title="Programming language"
>Programming language</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Software"
title="Software"
>Software</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Compiler"
title="Compiler"
>Compiler</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Database"
title="Database"
>Database</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/GUI"
class="mw-redirect"
title="GUI"
>GUI</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Graphics_software"
title="Graphics software"
>Graphics software</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Operating_system"
title="Operating system"
>Operating system</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Spreadsheet"
title="Spreadsheet"
>Spreadsheet</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Web_browser"
title="Web browser"
>Web browser</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Word_processor"
title="Word processor"
>Word processor</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<div></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<div></div>
</td>
</tr>
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<div style="padding: 0 0.25em"></div>
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<tbody>
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<th
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colspan="2"
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<div
id="Perspectives2212"
style="font-size: 114%; margin: 0 4em"
>
Perspectives
</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td
colspan="2"
class="navbox-list navbox-odd"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em"></div>
<table
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style="border-spacing: 0"
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<tbody>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
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<a
href="/wiki/Criticism_of_technology"
title="Criticism of technology"
>Criticism</a
>
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Appropriate_technology"
title="Appropriate technology"
>Appropriate technology</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Low_technology"
title="Low technology"
>Low technology</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Luddite"
title="Luddite"
>Luddite</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Neo-Luddism"
title="Neo-Luddism"
>Neo-Luddism</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Precautionary_principle"
title="Precautionary principle"
>Precautionary principle</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
<a
href="/wiki/Ecotechnology"
title="Ecotechnology"
>Ecotechnology</a
>
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Environmental_technology"
title="Environmental technology"
>Environmental technology</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Clean_technology"
title="Clean technology"
>Clean technology</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Sustainable_design"
title="Sustainable design"
>Sustainable design</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Sustainable_engineering"
title="Sustainable engineering"
>Sustainable
engineering</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
Policy &amp; politics
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Government_by_algorithm"
title="Government by algorithm"
>Government by algorithm</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Intellectual_property"
title="Intellectual property"
>Intellectual property</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Patent"
title="Patent"
>Patent</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Trade_secret"
title="Trade secret"
>Trade secret</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Persuasive_technology"
title="Persuasive technology"
>Persuasive technology</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Science_policy"
title="Science policy"
>Science policy</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Strategy_of_Technology"
title="Strategy of Technology"
>Strategy of Technology</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Technology_assessment"
title="Technology assessment"
>Technology assessment</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Technorealism"
title="Technorealism"
>Technorealism</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
<a
href="/wiki/Techno-progressivism"
title="Techno-progressivism"
>Progressivism</a
>
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Futures_studies"
title="Futures studies"
>Futures studies</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Technology_forecasting"
title="Technology forecasting"
>Technology
forecasting</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Technological_utopianism"
title="Technological utopianism"
>Technological utopianism</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Technocracy_movement"
title="Technocracy movement"
>Technocracy movement</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Technological_singularity"
title="Technological singularity"
>Technological
singularity</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Transhumanism"
title="Transhumanism"
>Transhumanism</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th
scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
>
<a
href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies"
title="Science and technology studies"
>Studies</a
>
</th>
<td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations"
title="Diffusion of innovations"
>Diffusion of innovations</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Technology_transfer"
title="Technology transfer"
>Technology transfer</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/History_of_technology"
title="History of technology"
>History</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Timeline_of_historic_inventions"
title="Timeline of historic inventions"
>Timeline of historic
inventions</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology"
title="Philosophy of technology"
>Philosophy</a
>
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_technology"
title="Social construction of technology"
>Social construction of
technology</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Technological_determinism"
title="Technological determinism"
>Technological
determinism</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Technology_acceptance_model"
title="Technology acceptance model"
>Technology acceptance
model</a
>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<div></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<div></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
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colspan="2"
class="navbox-list navbox-odd"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em"></div>
<table
class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup"
style="border-spacing: 0"
>
<tbody>
<tr>
<th
scope="col"
class="navbox-title"
colspan="2"
>
<div
id="Related&#95;concepts947"
style="font-size: 114%; margin: 0 4em"
>
Related concepts
</div>
</th>
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<tr>
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colspan="2"
class="navbox-list navbox-odd"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
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<div style="padding: 0 0.25em"></div>
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scope="row"
class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
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<a
href="/wiki/Applied_science"
title="Applied science"
>Applied science</a
>
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class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd"
style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
<div style="padding: 0 0.25em">
<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Agronomy"
title="Agronomy"
>Agronomy</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Architecture"
title="Architecture"
>Architecture</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Construction"
title="Construction"
>Construction</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Engineering"
title="Engineering"
>Engineering</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Forensic_science"
title="Forensic science"
>Forensics</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Forestry"
title="Forestry"
>Forestry</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Logistics"
title="Logistics"
>Logistics</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Medicine"
title="Medicine"
>Medicine</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Mining"
title="Mining"
>Mining</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Navigation"
title="Navigation"
>Navigation</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Surveying"
title="Surveying"
>Surveying</a
>
</li>
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class="navbox-group"
style="width: 1%"
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<a
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title="Innovation"
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style="width: 100%; padding: 0"
>
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<ul>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Design"
title="Design"
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>
</li>
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<a
href="/wiki/High_tech"
title="High tech"
>High tech</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Invention"
title="Invention"
>Invention</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Mature_technology"
title="Mature technology"
>Mature technology</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Research_and_development"
title="Research and development"
>Research and development</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Technological_convergence"
title="Technological convergence"
>Technological
convergence</a
>
</li>
<li>
<a
href="/wiki/Technology_lifecycle"
class="mw-redirect"
title="Technology lifecycle"
>Technology lifecycle</a
>
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<a
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International
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National
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<span class="uid"
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<span class="uid"
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class="external text"
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Other
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rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
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>
</li>
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